0- 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2007  with  funding  from 

Microsoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/communitycivicstOOadamrich 


A  COMMUNITY  CIVICS 


A  TEXT-BOOK  IN  LOYAL  CITIZENSHIP 


BY 
EDWIN  W.  ADAMS 

SUPERINTENDENT  OF  SCHOOLS 

RADNOR    TOWNSHIP 

WAYNE,    PA. 


■ 


CHARLES  SCRIBNER'S  SONS 

NEW  YORK  CHICAGO  BOSTON 


-p 


^ 


Copyright,  1920,  by 
CHARLES  SCRIBNER'S  SONS 


•  ••*•••     • 

•  •    •  ••  •  •     • 


•  •    •  • 

•  •  ••  • 

•  ••••• 


CONTENTS 

THE  COMMUNITY  AND   ITS  INTERESTS 

LPTER 

I.  I  Am  an  American  .... 

II.  Many  in  One  ..... 

III.  In  the  Game  ..... 

IV.  Our  Common  Interests 


PAGE 

I 

5 
10 

14 


THE   ELEMENTS   OF   COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

V.  Health  ...... 

VI.  Health  (continued)    .... 

VII.  Protection  of  Life  and  Property  . 

VIII.  Protection  of  Life  and  Property  (continued) 

IX.  Education 


X. 

XL 


Recreation    . 
Civic  Beauty 
XII.    Communication 

XIII.  Transportation 

XIV.  Wealth 
XV.    Wealth  (continued) 


22 

48 
8p 

105 
119 

143 
165 
187 
203 
222 
241 


THE  WARDS  OF  THE   COMMUNITY 
XVI.    Charities       .  .  . 


428206 


262 


/ 


iv  CONTENTS 


A  SELF-GOVERNING  COMMUNITY 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

XVII.    Correction  and  the  Courts  ....    274 


XVIII.  How  the  Laws  Are  Made 

XIX.  Enforcing  the  Laws 

XX.  Meeting  the  Expenses  of  Government 

XXI.  Party  Government  and  Civil  Service 


293 
310 

317 
330 


THE   LOYAL   CITIZEN 
XXII.    American  Ideals  and  Citizenship       .        .        .    354 

The  Constitution  of  the  United  States         .        .        .359 
Index 379 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


"I  am  an  American" 


Frontispiece 


A  Library  Wagon  Stopping  at  a  Farmhouse   .         .         .  19 

A  Children's  Library  Room    .         .         .         f        .         .  19 

A  Filter  Bed   .         .         .         .         .         .         .  *     7        .         .  39 

Roosevelt  Dam,  Arizona  .  40 

Rubbish  Cans  for  Paper  and  Other  Waste      ....  56 

Ash  Machine 61 


United  States  Immigration  Station,  Ellis  Island 
At  Important  Crossings  We  Find  the  Traffic  Officer 
Traffic  Has  Become  so  Dense  that  it  Has  Become  Necessary 
to  Make  Strict  Rules  as  to  just  how  a  Vehicle  Shall 
Proceed .         .         . 

There  Are  No  Braver  Men  to  Be  Found  Anywhere  than 

among  the  Fire  Fighters  of  our  Cities 
These  Boxes  Are  Connected  by  Wire  with  a  Central  Exchange, 

and  from  this  Office  the  Alarm  Is  Sent  to  the  Company 

which  Is  to  Respond 

A  Fire  Line  through  a  Michigan  Forest 

The  Schools  Are  at  Work  Developing  the  Young  Citizen 

Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art,  New  York 

Part  of  a  Newspaper  Pressroom 

Part  of  a  City  Playground 

Boys  at  Play  in  the  Park        .         .         . 

The  Grand  Canyon  of  the  Yellowstone  and  the  Great 

Yellowstone  National  Park      .... 
A  Garden  Arrangement  Giving  an  Effect  of  Distance 
The  Capitol,  Washington,  D.  C.     \ 

v 


Fall 


68 

83 

84 
92 


97 
101 
123 
136 
138 
148 

152 

155 
169 
180 


VI  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

Assorting  Mail  for  Various  States 192 

Wireless  Station  at  Sayville,  N.  Y. 197 

Part  of  the  Columbia  River  Highway,  Oregon         .         .         .  207 
One  of  the  Limited  Trains,  Showing  the  Six  Tracks,  Block 

Signal  System,  and  Rock  Ballast  Roadbed       .         .         .216 

Duquesne  Steel  Works,  Pennsylvania 235 

Irrigable  Land  in  Washington  State  before  Reclamation         .  254 

Apple  Orchard,  Washington  State,  the  Result  of  Reclamation  254 

A  Court  Room 279 

President  Wilson  Addressing  Congress 304 

A  National  Nominating  Convention 337 

A  Polling  Place       . 346 


A  COMMUNITY  CIVICS 

THE   COMMUNITY   AND    ITS   INTERESTS 

CHAPTER   I 
I  AM   AN   AMERICAN 

The  flag  was  passing  by.  A  group  of  schoolboys,  stand- 
ing in  the  crowd  on  the  sidewalk,  had  reverently  removed 
their  hats  and  were  gazing  at  the  Stars  and  Stripes  as  they 
floated  at  the  head  of  a  regiment  of  heroes  who  had  just 
returned.  Then  with  quickened  breath  one  of  the  boys 
turned  to  the  others  and  exclaimed,  "  Gee,  fellows,  I'm 
glad  I'm  an  American." 

So  were  they  all.  You  could  tell  it  by  the  way  their 
eyes  sparkled  as  the  soldiers  passed  along.  Deep  in  each 
heart  was  the  wish  that  he  too  might  wear  the  uniform 
and  march  proudly  after  that  flag.  And  yet  when  you 
looked  at  them  you  could  tell  beyond  a  doubt  that  one 
had  come  from  sunny  Italy,  another's  father  at  least  had 
been  a  son  of  old  Erin,  and  still  a  third  had  been  driven 
from  Russia  by  religious  persecution.  Yet  here  they 
were,  each  a  loyal,  true  American. 

What  a  wonderful  country  is  ours !  Not  alone  because 
of  its  great  extent  of  territory,  nor  its  wonderful  wealth, 
but  because  of  the  things  for  which  it  has  ever  stood. 
Puritan  and  Cavalier,   Catholic  and   Protestant,  wearied 


2  THE  COMMUNITY; AND   ITS  INTERESTS 

by  the  persecutions  of  the  Old  World,  turned  their  eyes  and 
then  their  footsteps  toward  America,  the  land  which  held 
out  to  them  the  promise  of  Liberty  and  Freedom.  And 
when  in  later  years  an  unwise  king  oppressed  them  in 
their  new  land,  they  arose  and  threw  off  the  yoke  of  Eng- 
land and  gave  us  a  new  nation  dedicated  to  the  cause  of 
liberty  which  should  forever  be  a  refuge  for  the  oppressed 
of  every  land.  Then  came  the  seekers  from  all  nations  of 
the  earth,  each  throwing  in  their  lot  with  the  American 
people.  And  to-day,  America,  made  rich  and  fruitful 
by  the  gifts  and  services  of  many  nations,  stands  as  the 
champion  of  the  rights  and  liberties  of  all  peoples. 

There  was  a  time  when  the  proudest  man  in  all  the 
world  was  the  one  who  could  hold  up  his  head  and  say, 
"  I  am  a  Persian."  Years  rolled  by  and  another  great 
people  arose  who  conquered  the  Persians,  and  to  be  a 
Greek  was  the  greatest  honor.  Then  came  Rome,  with 
all  its  glory  and  world  empire,  and  men  were  willing  to 
pay  a  fortune  merely  to  have  the  honor  of  being  called  a 
Roman.  But  to-day  the  proudest  man  or  woman,  boy 
or  girl,  in  all  the  world  is  the  one  who  can  hold  his  head 
high  and  say  with  joy,  "  I  am  an  American." 

And  why  have  we  the  right  to  be  so  proud  of  our  great 
country?  Because  it  has  stood  before  all  the  world  as 
the  champion  of  the  rights  of  every  man.  Because  it  has 
rendered  to  the  nations  of  the  world  the  supreme  service. 
Not  because  of  the  success  of  our  arms,  but  because  of  the 
ideals  for  which  our  people  have  stood  and  for  which  so 
many  of  our  brave  men  have  been  willing  to  lay  down 
their  lives. 


I  AM  AN  AMERICAN  3 

Many  of  the  men  who  fought  for  our  country  in  the 
Great  War  were  not  born  in  the  United  States.  Many  of 
them  had  been  brought  in  childhood  to  this  country  by 
their  parents  as  they  sought  in  the  land  of  opportunity 
for  the  freedom  denied  them  across  the  seas.  Yet  when 
the  call  of  duty  came  they  were  not  found  wanting.  They 
have  won  for  themselves  by  their  service  the  right  to  be 
called  Americans  just  as  did  the  Revolutionary  heroes. 

We  owe  much  to  the  men  and  women  who  have  come 
to  us  from  other  lands.  If  we  go  back  far  enough  we  find 
that  there  is  not  one  of  us  whose  ancestors  did  not  come 
to  America  as  immigrants.  Each  nation  that  has  sent 
its  share  of  people  to  us  has  contributed  something  to  the 
greatness  of  America.  We  should  not  look  down  upon 
the  newcomer  because  of  his  ignorance  of  our  language 
and  our  ways.  He  too,  if  we  but  give  him  the  chance 
for  which  our  country  stands,  will  be  a  true  American 
and  make  his  contribution  to  the  greatness  of  our  nation. 

Our  country  is  sometimes  spoken  of  as  the  melting-pot 
of  the  nations.  The  newcomer,  if  he  intends  to  remain 
and  make  this  country  his  home,  should  willingly  and 
cheerfully  adapt  himself  to  the  ways  of  the  new  land. 
He  will  never  become  a  real  American  until  he  throws 
himself  heart  and  soul  in  with  the  people  of  America, 
adopts  their  language  and  customs,  and  respects  their 
institutions.  There  will  still  be  much  of  the  old  which 
he  will  want  to  retain  and  which,  if  used  for  the  best  in- 
terests of  the  new  group  of  which  he  is  now  a  part,  will 
be  a  valuable  contribution  to  the  country  of  his  adoption. 

Our  nation  is  one  great   family.     America  is  our  own 


4  THE  COMMUNITY  AND   ITS   INTERESTS 

home.  Stretching  from  ocean  to  ocean  and  under  the 
Stars  and  Stripes  is  a  land  which  we  love  to  call  our  own. 
Bound  together,  more  tightly  now  than  ever  before,  we 
are  all  to  live  and  work  together,  serving  not  only  ourselves 
but  the  whole  world.  We  are  going  to  consider  how  we  as 
a  great  united  people  are  to  live  and  work  together,  and 
what  we  are  to  do  that  each  part  may  work  by  itself  and 
yet  at  the  same  time  with  every  other  part,  and  this  with- 
out friction. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  FURTHER   STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION 

i.  What  should  we  do  when  the  flag  is  passing  by?  Read  "  The 
flag  goes  by,"  H.  H.  Bennett. 

2.  What  is  the  national  anthem?  What  should  we  do  while  it 
is  being  played  or  sung  ?  Every  American  should  know  the  words  of 
this  song.     Do  you? 

3.  What  do  we  mean  when  we  say  in  the  salute  to  the  flag  "  I 
pledge  allegiance  "  ? 

4.  By  whom  was  your  state  originally  settled  ?  What  nationalities 
now  make  up  the  population  of  your  state?  Why  did  these  people 
come  to  America  ?    to  your  state  ? 

5.  What  nationalities  are  represented  in  your  class  in  school? 

6.  Under  what  kind  of  government  did  these  people  live  before 
they  came  to  America?  What  were  the  living  conditions?  In  what 
ways  have  they  benefited  by  coming  to  America  ? 

7.  Why  is  America  called  "  the  melting-pot  "  ? 

8.  Why  should  a  foreigner,  coming  to  America  with  the  intention 
of  making  it  his  home,  learn  to  speak  the  English  language? 

9.  What  are  some  of  the  things  which  other  nations  have  contrib- 
uted to  America  through  the  immigrant? 

10.  How  may  we  help  the  newcomer  to  our  country  to  become  truly 
American  ? 

11.  Make  a  list  of  the  names  of  some  true  Americans.  Why  do 
they  deserve  to  be  called  "  true  Americans  "  ?  Does  your  name  be- 
long on  the  list  ?    Resolve  that  it  shall  ever  deserve  to  remain  there. 


CHAPTER  II 
MANY  IN   ONE 

There  are  about  one  hundred  million  people  in  our 
country.  Think  of  it.  But  when  we  stop  to  try  to  think 
of  it  we  find  that  we  can  scarcely  have  any  idea  of  how 
many  this  really  is.  If  we  live  in  a  large  city  we  may  go 
to  the  roof  of  some  tall  building  and  look  far  out  over  the 
city.  How  large  it  is  !  It  stretches  out  in  every  direction 
almost  as  far  as  the  eye  can  see.  Below  us  lie  the  homes, 
the  schools,  the  churches,  the  shops,  the  factories,  the 
office  buildings,  where  hundreds  of  thousands  or  it  may 
be  two  or  three  million  people  live  and  work.  Just 
think  that  this  is  but  one  of  the  many  cities  all  over  our 
great  land  where  similar  sights  may  be  observed  !  Or  we 
may  take  a  fast  express  train  and  travel  hour  after  hour  and 
day  after  day  past  farms  and  villages,  through  cities  large 
and  small,  and  after  we  have  crossed  the  continent  we 
will  have  seen  but  a  small  part  of  the  homes  where  this 
enormous  family,  the  American  nation,  lives. 

And  these  millions  are  one.  Each  man  and  woman, 
each  boy  and  girl,  is  going  about  his  or  her  own  task. 
We  do  not  always  stop  to  think  how  many  other  people 
are  doing  just  the  same  sort  of  work  we  are.  And  yet 
the  most  wonderful  thing  about  it  all  is  that  we  are  all 
working  each   for   the   other.     Out   in   the   great   middle 


6  THE   COMMUNITY  AND   ITS  INTERESTS 

west  the  farmer  is  raising  the  wheat  and  the  corn  which 
we  shall  some  day  use  on  our  own  table.  Down  in  the 
mines  men  busily  dig  out  the  precious  coal  to  warm  us 
when  the  cold  days  of  winter  come,  or  else  to  drive  the 
wheels  of  shop  and  factory.  Cattle  are  being  raised, 
and  cotton,  and  fruit,  and  vegetables.  Every  part  of 
the  land  is  busy  with  the  industry  which  is  to  feed  us, 
clothe  us,  shelter  us,  and  supply  the  many  needs  which  arise 
in  our  lives  or  to  give  us  some  of  the  luxuries.  Great 
ships  are  out  on  the  oceans  bringing  us  the  products  of 
distant  lands.  And  we  receive  all  these  things,  the  re- 
sults of  the  service  of  the  many,  for  the  small  service  which 
we  render  in  return  to  the  many. 

But  not  only  are  we  members  of  this  great  big  family  of 
a  hundred  million,  we  are  members  at  the  same  time 
of  many  other  smaller  groups  which  go  to  make  up  the 
big  family  or  the  nation.  Each  of  us  has  his  own  little 
family  circle,  Mother  and  Father,  Brothers  and  Sisters, 
making  up  the  home.  Here  we  live  together  happily,  find- 
ing our  joy  in  serving  each  other  just  as  we  should  in  our 
larger  home,  the  nation.  Then  there  is  the  group  to  which 
we  belong  which  we  call  our  class  in  school,  thirty,  forty, 
or  fifty  boys  and  girls  who  live  and  work  together  in  the 
schoolroom  and  on  the  playground  getting  an  education. 
Again,  there  is  the  group  of  people  which  we  speak  of  as 
our  Church,  or  our  Sunday-school  class,  or  it  may  be  the 
^ifc>up  in  the  office  or  mill  or  factory  where  we  work.  Some- 
times we  form  groups  for  work  or  play  as  in  our  Red  Cross 
society,  or  Boy  Scout  troop,  or  athletic  teams.  You 
will  be  able  to  think  of  many  such  groups. 


MANY  IN  ONE  7 

If  you  have  ever  played  on  one  of  the  athletic  teams  of 
your  school  you  will  know  just  how  important  good  team 
work  is.  The  nine  members  of  the  baseball  team,  or  the 
football  eleven,  or  the  basketball  five,  must  all  play  to- 
gether as  one  man  if  the  team  is  to  win.  A  poor  player 
is  a  weak  point  on  the  team  and  may  be  the  means  of 
bringing  about  defeat.  A  player  who  is  not  willing  to 
obey  the  orders  of  the  captain  and  do  just  as  he  is  told 
endangers  the  chances  for  success  of  the  entire  team.  Each 
player  must  be  willing  to  sacrifice  his  individual  ambi- 
tion so  that  the  good  of  the  entire  team  may  be  achieved. 

This  need  for  team  work,  for  obedience  to  the  will  of  the 
leader,  grows  out  of  the  fact  that  the  many  are  trying  to 
work  together  as  one.  It  is  only  as  the  leader  thinks 
clearly  and  quickly  and  the  members  of  the  team  obey 
promptly  and  fully,  that  victory  is  secured.  Each  mem- 
ber is  an  important  part  of  the  team  and  necessary  to  its 
success.  On  the  other  hand  each  one  needs  the  help  of 
all  the  others,  for  left  unaided  he  could  do  nothing.  It 
is  the  "  many  in  one  "  working  as  one  that  makes  possible 
success. 

It  is  not  always  easy  to  give  up  one's  own  ideas  as  to 
just  what  ought  to  be  done  or  how  a  certain  play  should 
be  made.  Little  boys  and  girls  do  not  often  form  teams 
to  play  games,  but  when  they  do  the  game  usually  does 
not  last  very  long,  for  they  do  not  understand  the  value 
or  necessity  for  team  work  and  soon  begin  to  quarrel 
and  the  game  breaks  up.  ^  It  is  a  sign  of  strength'  of  char- 
acter when  one  is  able  to  work  or  play  with  his  fellows. and 
is  willing  to  subordinate  his  own  will  to  that  of  the  group. 


8  THE  COMMUNITY  AND   ITS  INTERESTS 

And  why  is  it  that  we  are  willing  to  sacrifice  our  own 
ideas  as  to  just  what  should  be  done  and  to  obey  the 
word  of  our  leader?  It  is  because  we  are  all  so  interested 
in  the  outcome  of  the  game.  We  are  so  anxious  to  win 
that  we  are  willing  to  do  as  we  are  directed.  Each  officer 
and  private  in  the  American  Army  may  have  had  his 
own  idea  of  just  what  would  have  been  the  best  way  to 
win  the  war,  but  each  one  knew  that  the  only  hope  for 
success  lay  in  following  obediently  the  orders  of  the  head 
of  the  Army.  Even  General  Pershing  himself,  realizing 
that  the  Allied  troops  must  work  together  as  one,  went 
to  the  commander  of  the  French  Army  and  pledged  to 
Marshal  Foch  his  own  obedience  and  that  of  the  American 
Army.  It  was  not  because  General  Pershing  was  unable  to 
direct  the  fighting,  but  because  he  knew  that  the  only  way 
to  have  real  success  was  for  all  the  fighting  forces  on  the 
field  to  work  together  as  one  man  against  the  enemy.  It 
was  a  victory  of  "  many  in  one." 

The  greatness  of  the  American  nation  has  grown  out 
of  the  unity  of  purpose  and  efforts  of  its  people.  It  was 
a  united  people  which  won  independence  from  Great 
Britain.  They  realized  that  "  in  union  there  is  strength  " 
or  as  Franklin  wittily  put  it  to  the  signers  of  the  Declara- 
tion of  Independence  after  they  had  signed  that  docu- 
ment, "  Gentlemen,  we  must  now  hang  together,  or  we 
shall  all  hang  separately."  It  was  an  attempt  at  disunion 
growing  out  of  a  difference  of  belief  that  almost  wrecked 
the  nation  in  the  days  of  the  great  Civil  War.  And  re- 
cently, when  the  liberties  of  the  entire  world  were  threat- 
ened by  the  German  Government,  it  was  the  effort  of  our 


MANY  IN  ONE  9 

united  people  that  made  the  world  safe  for  democracy.  The 
future  greatness  of  our  country  depends  upon  each  one  of 
us.  Only  as  we  unite  with  our  fellows  in  oneness  of  pur- 
pose to  serve  each  other  and  the  whole  world,  and  to 
cherish  and  protect  the  high  ideals  for  which  our  country 
has  so  proudly  stood,  shall  our  country  truly  prosper.  We 
are  many,  but  we  are  one,  —  a  united  people. 

SUGGESTIONS   FOR   FURTHER   STUDY   AND   DISCUSSION 

1.  "  E  pluribus  unum  "  is  the  Latin  for  "  Many  in  one."  See  if 
you  can  find  the  motto  on  a  coin. 

2.  How  many  people  are  there  in  your  town  or  city?  What  was 
the  population  at  the  last  census? 

3.  What  is  meant  by  census ?  How  often  is  it  taken?  Describe 
the  method  of  taking  it. 

4.  How  many  cities  are  there  in  the  United  States  with  a  popu- 
lation of  over  one  million  ?  Name  them  in  the  order  of  their  size  and 
give  their  population. 

5.  Name  the  five  largest  cities  in  your  state.  Give  the  population 
of  each. 

6.  What  are  the  leading  industries  of  your  section  of  the  country  ? 
What  do  they  supply  to  the  rest  of  the  United  States? 

7.  What  are  some  of  the  things  necessary  if  we  are  to  have  a  good 
school  team? 

8.  In  what  way  is  our  school  like  a  team  ?  What  makes  it  possible 
for  all  the  pupils  and  teachers  in  your  school  to  work  together  with  so 
little  friction  ? 

9.  How  does  obedience  make  for  true  greatness? 

10.  What  is  meant  by  "  civic  virtues  "?  Make  a  list  of  some  of 
the  civic  virtues  which  are  necessary  if  we  are  to  live  and  work  together 
successfully. 


CHAPTER   III 
IN   THE  GAME 

Some  of  us  have  probably  never  represented  our  school 
on  a  team  in  an  inter-school  game.  We  have  had  to  be 
content  to  stand  on  the  side-lines  or  sit  in  the  grand  stand 
and  watch  the  chosen  team  play  for  our  school.  It  is  good 
fun  to  watch  the  others  play,  and  exciting  too,  especially 
when  our  team  is  making  a  particularly  good  play.  But 
somehow  or  other  we  do  not  get  as  much  real  enjoyment 
out  of  this  as  when  we  ourselves  are  playing,  even  if  it  is 
only  on  one  of  the  teams  from  our  own  class.  For  then 
we  are  doing  something  ourselves,  we  are  in  the  game, 
and  that  is  surely  more  exciting  than  always  to  sit  back 
and  watch  others. 

Of  course  you  understand  that  baseball  and  football 
and  the  other  athletic  games  about  which  we  have  been 
talking  are  only  a  few  of  the  very  many  games  which  are 
being  played.  If  you  have  ever  worked  in  a  business  con- 
cern you  will  know  that  business  itself  is  really  a  game, 
and  a  very  interesting  one  too,  with  its  rules  just  like  our 
school  games.  As  we  get  older  we  will  become  more  and 
more  interested  in  this  kind  of  game,  for  it  is  a  good  game 
in  which  it  pays  well  to  be  successful. 

In  fact  all  of  our  relations  in  life  are  much  like  the  games 
we  have  been  considering.     There  are  of  course  the  players 

IO 


IN  THE  GAME  II 

who  make  up  not  the  teams  but  the  groups  which  are 
engaged.  Then  there  is  the  place  where  the  work  is  being 
carried  on,  the  place  of  business.  Then  there  are  the 
common  interests  which  bring  the  people  together.  And 
finally  there  are  the  rules  of  the  game,  for  in  every  activity 
of  life,  wherever  people  live,  and  work  or  play  together, 
there  must  be  agreement  as  to  what  may  and  what  may 
not  be  done.  Instead  of  the  word  team,  which  we  might 
use  if  we  cared  to,  but  which  we  usually  save  to  apply 
to  groups  playing  games,  we  use  another  word  which  means 
practically  the  same  thing.     This  word  is  community. 

By  a  community  we  mean  a  group  of  people  living  to- 
gether in  a  given  place,  and  bound  to  one  another  by  com- 
mon interests,  and  subject  to  common  laws.  It  does  not 
matter  how  large  or  small  the  group  may  be,  if  we  find  the 
three  elements  of  place,  community  of  interest,  and  com- 
mon laws,  we  have  a  community.  Our  families,  our  class, 
our  school,  our  ball  team,  all  have  these  elements  in  com- 
mon and  are  therefore  communities.  In  like  manner  the 
people  of  our  neighborhood  form  a  community.  And 
so  we  might  go  on  gradually  enlarging  the  circle  until  we 
would  have  the  community  including  our  entire  town  or 
city,  our  state,   or  even  our  nation. 

In  each  of  these  communities  which  we  have  mentioned 
you  are  a  member.  You  may  not  be  a  very  large  member, 
nor  a  very  old  member,  but  nevertheless  a  member.  Just 
as  by  being  one  of  your  class  you  are  a  member  of  the 
class,  or  by  being  one  of  your  school  you  are  a  member  of 
your  school,  so  by  being  one  of  the  inhabitants  of  your 
city,  your  state  and  nation,  you  are  a  member  of  each  of 


12  THE   COMMUNITY  AND   ITS   INTERESTS 

these  communities.  And  this  becomes  a  position  of  great 
importance  when  we  understand  that  membership  in  a 
community,  means   citizenship. 

11  But  I  am  not  a  citizen,"  some  boy  or  girl  may  exclaim, 
"  for  I  do  not  vote  nor  shall  I  be  able  to  do  so  for  some 
years  to  come."  Let  us  see.  The  United  States  is  a 
community,  is  it  not  ?  Yes,  it  is  a  group  of  people,  about 
one  hundred  million  of  them,  living  in  a  given  place,  the 
United  States,  with  common  interests,  surely  you  will  not 
doubt  that,  and  subject  to  common  laws.  These  common 
laws  have  as  their  foundation  stone  a  body  of  laws  called 
the  Constitution.  This  body  of  laws  is  called  the  funda- 
mental law  of  the  land,  that  is,  the  foundation  law.  If 
we  turn  to  this  Constitution  we  shall  find  that  ■"  All  per- 
sons born  or  naturalized  in  the  United  States,  and  subject 
to  the  jurisdiction  thereof,  are  citizens  of  the  United  States 
and  of  the  State  wherein  they  reside."  Were  you  born 
in  the  United  States  or  has  your  father  taken  out  his  nat- 
uralization papers?  Do  you  obey  the  laws  of  the  coun- 
try? Then  you  are  a  citizen  of  this  country,  regardless 
of  your  age,  size,  or  any  other  matter. 

How  proud  we  should  be  when  we  realize  that  we  are 
citizens !  Now  we  not  only  may  say,  "  I  am  an  Ameri- 
can," but  "  I  am  an  American  citizen."  Just  think  that 
we  are  now  really  in  the  game,  not  merely  standing  on 
the  side-lines  waiting  until  we  are  old  enough  to  take 
part.  We  are  not  preparing  for  citizenship  as  we  do  our 
school  work  or  play  our  games,  but  we  are  citizens  now, 
and  our  work  and  play  is  the  work  and  play  of  citizens. 
As  we  grow  older  our  duties  and  responsibilities  as  citi- 


IN  THE  GAME  13 

zens  will  become  greater,  but  they  will  be  no  more  real 
than  they  are  to-day.  Our  duty  now  is  to  make  such  good 
use  of  our  time  that  when  we  become  the  voters  and  law- 
makers of  our  country  we  shall  be  able  wisely  to  direct  the 
affairs  of  our  land. 

SUGGESTIONS   FOR   FURTHER   STUDY  AND    DISCUSSION 

1.  Make  a  list  of  the  various  communities  of  which  you  are  a  mem- 
ber. 

2.  Turn  to  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States  and  see  if  you  can 
locate  the  definition  of  a  citizen. 

3.  What  are  some  of  the  rights  of  a  citizen  ?  What  are  some  of  the 
duties  ? 

4.  At  what  age  will  you  be  allowed  to  vote  ?  Do  you  consider  voting 
a  privilege  or  a  duty?  What  objection  might  be  raised  to  this  last 
question  ? 

5.  What  are  some  of  the  rules  of  your  home  ?  of  your  school  ?  of 
business  ? 

6.  Politeness  and  courtesy  are  unwritten  laws  of  society.  How  do 
they  help  make  life  smoother  and  easier? 

7.  What  is  a  passport  ?  Of  what  value  is  this  to  an  American  citi- 
zen traveling  in  a  foreign  country? 

8.  The  United  States  is  very  jealous  of  the  welfare  of  its  citizens. 
See  if  you  can  find  any  reference  in  your  histories  to  steps  which  it  has 
taken  to  protect  them  and  their  interests. 


CHAPTER   IV 
OUR  COMMON  INTERESTS 

Surely  no  one  of  us  would  care  to  live  the  life  of  a  her- 
mit. If  we  go  off  on  a  camping  or  fishing  trip  it  is  usually 
with  companions,  and  we  see  to  it  that  so  far  as  possible 
we  are  not  lacking  in  the  necessities  of  life.  When  the 
vacation  is  over  we  are  glad  to  get  back  to  our  family- 
and  friends.  Man  is  a  social  creature.  That  is,  he  likes 
to  be  with  other  people.  He  has  found  that  by  living  in 
groups  he  can  protect  himself  from  his  enemies  and  in 
many  ways  better  his  condition  of  living. 

In  the  earliest  days  of  history  there  were  no  great  na- 
tions such  as  ours.  People  lived  in  families  and  wandered 
about  from  place  to  place  in  search  of  locations  where  a 
living  might  be  had.  Some  families  being  stronger  than 
others  were  able  to  drive  the  weaker  ones  away  and  so 
get  the  best  places  for  themselves.  But  in  time  when  other 
strong  families  came  from  afar  and  tried  to  drive  them 
away  they  united  with  the  weaker  families  and  together 
were  able  to  keep  off  the  intruder.  These  united  families 
were  called  tribes  or  clans.  It  was  such  an  organization 
that  our  forefathers  found  in  America  among  the  Indians. 

We  have  seen  that  strength  lies  in  union,  and  so  as 
civilization  progressed  people  learned  this  fact,  and  out  of 
it  grew  the  great  nations  of  the  world.     Such  union  not 

14 


OUR  COMMON  INTERESTS  1 5 

only  made  for  safety,  but  also  increased  the  possible 
comforts  which  the  people  might  enjoy.  Where  a  few 
could  barely  scrape  enough  together  to  survive,  the  many 
could  so  work  as  to  live  in  comparative  luxury  and  ease. 
This,  together  with  man's  desire  for  companionship,  led 
to  the  founding  of  communities  where  people  lived  close 
together,  towns  and  cities. 

History  tells  of  cities  dating  many  centuries  before  the 
coming  of  Christ,  *but  the  really  large  city,  the  city  as  we 
know  it  to-day,  is  a  development  of  the  past  century. 
A  hundred  years  ago  in  our  country  fewer  than  one  person 
in  every  twenty-five  lived  in  cities,  and  these  cities  we  now 
would  scarcely  call  good-sized  villages.  To-day  the  pro- 
portion of  people  living  in  cities  is  about  two  out  of  every 
five.  The  tremendous  growth  of  great  cities  during  the 
past  hundred  years  has  been  due  largely  to  the  changed 
living  conditions  of  the  people,  brought  about  by  the  in- 
vention and  wide-spread  use  of  power-driven  machinery. 
Such  machinery  has  cut  down  the  number  of  hands  needed 
on  the  farms  and  has  increased  the  demand  for  labor  in 
mills  and  factories  where  raw  products  are  converted  into 
manufactured  articles.  Industrial  plants  are  for  the  most 
part  to  be  found  in  the  large  cities,  and  men  in  search  of 
employment  must  go  to  these  cities. 

But  the  millions  in  the  cities  could  not  live  were  it  not 
for  the  other  millions  who  on  farm  and  ranch  supply  the 
food  and  other  necessities  which  the  city  dweller  must 
have.  And  the  city  sends  back  to  the  farmer  machinery, 
tools,  clothing,  and  many  other  things  which  make  for 
increased  comfort  and  production  on  the  farm.     So  there 


1 6  THE   COMMUNITY  AND   ITS   INTERESTS 

is  a  constant  working  together  of  all  the  communities, 
aiding  each  other  to  attain  the  things  which  they  desire 
and  which  are  needful  for  the  common  good. 

If  we  consider  any  community,  whether  it  be  the  family 
in  which  we  live,  the  school  we  attend,  an  office,  work- 
shop or  factory,  a  church,  or  our  city,  state,  or  nation, 
we  shall  find  that  there  is  one  element  which  is  the  chief 
reason  for  the  existence  of  the  community.  It  is  a  com- 
munity or  commonness  of  interest.  It  is  this  commonness 
of  interest  which  binds  the  members  of  the  group  together. 
It  is  the  desire  to  attain  the  things  which  they  believe 
to  be  most  worth  while  which  leads  them  to  sacrifice  if 
necessary  their  own  individual  desires  in  order  that  the 
wishes  of  the  whole  may  be  obtained.  The  one  reason 
for  the  existence  of  any  community  is  that  the  welfare 
of  all  may  be  advanced. 

If  we  turn  to  our  histories  we  shall  find  that  the  earliest 
communities  of  white  people  in  America  were  brought 
about  by  a  common  desire  on  the  part  of  certain  people 
in  Europe  to  escape  religious  persecution.  It  was  their 
desire  to  worship  God  as  they  saw  fit  which  led  to  the  com- 
ing of  the  first  settlers  to  the  New  World.  It  was  a  common 
enemy,  the  French  and  Indians,  which  led  later  to  the 
uniting  of  the  English  colonies  into  a  larger  community. 
And  later  it  was  a  common  desire  to  be  free  from  the  bur- 
den of  English  rule  which  led  to  the  establishment  of  the 
American  nation. 

The  story  of  the  beginnings  of  your  local  community 
will  be  very  interesting.  As  you  read  the  story  try  to 
find  out  just  what  were  the  causes  or  conditions  which 


OUR  COMMON  INTERESTS  1 7 

led  to  the  founding  of  the  community.  Try  to  discover 
how  the  people  went  about  it  to  obtain  those  things  which 
represent  the  desires  of  every  community. 

There  are  certain  things  which  the  people  in  every  com- 
munity are  seeking.  They  are  the  things  which  are  of 
common  interest  to  all  the  people  in  the  community.  Some 
of  these  are  so  common  that  we  do  not  often  stop  to  con- 
sider them,  and  yet  the  most  common  are  by  far  the  most 
important. 

Can  you  guess  which  is  the  most  important  of  all  the 
things  which  people  in  communities  desire  ?  There  is  one 
which  outranks  all  others  in  importance  and  yet  which 
we  take  as  a  matter  of  course.  It  is  life  itself.  "But  we 
would  live  anyhow  even  if  we  had  no  community,"  some 
one  may  say.  Let  us  not  be  too  sure.  One  of  the  first 
desires  which  brought  man  together  into  communities 
was  his  desire  to  protect  his  life  from  wild  beasts  and  from 
other  stronger  men.  And  even  if  there  were  not  these  to 
contend  with  there  would  still  be  the  forces  of  nature, 
storms,  cold,  disease,  hunger,  and  many  others  which  would 
make  life  very  uncertain.  Against  all  these  man  can  be 
reasonably  safe  only  when  he  has  the  aid  of  his  fellows. 

Then  next  in  importance  to  life  comes  health.  So  im- 
portant is  this  that  if  health  is  lost,  life  itself  is  in  great 
danger.  Without  health  man  is  helpless  to  face  the  prob- 
lems of  life.  Then  if  ever,  he  needs  the  help  of  his  fellow 
man.  Living  alone  we  could  not  protect  ourselves  prop- 
erly against  disease  and  famine ;  and  first  losing  health, 
we  would  then  be  in  danger  of  losing  life. 

Man  has  always  desired  to  accumulate  property.     To 


1 8  THE   COMMUNITY  AND   ITS  INTERESTS 

the  primitive  man  every  handful  of  grain,  every  arrow- 
head, every  animal  skin,  meant  much  because  it  stood 
between  him  and  death  which  was  constantly  threatening. 
With  us  to-day  the  bare  necessities  of  life  are  mostly 
taken  for  granted,  but  we  too  desire  to  possess  things, 
for  their  possession  may  mean  better  living  conditions 
and  possibly  greater  happiness. 

Having  accumulated  wealth  or  property  we  desire  to 
keep  it,  to  protect  it  from  theft  and  destruction.  The 
demon  fire  may  sweep  away  in  a  few  hours  the  accumu- 
lations of  a  lifetime,  or  a  thief  may  steal  our  savings 
of  years.  By  ourselves  we  would  be  helpless  in  the 
presence  of  a  stronger  person,  but  surrounded  by  our 
community,  each  member  of  which  desires  that  his  goods 
also  shall  be  safe,  we  feel  quite  secure. 

One  of  the  communities  to  which  we  have  frequently  re- 
ferred has  been  our  school.  It  represents  another  desire 
of  the  people  of  our  community,  the  desire  for  education. 
Then,  too,  there  are  libraries,  books,  newspapers,  and  so 
on,  which  are  other  means  that  people  have  developed  to 
satisfy  their  desire  for  learning. 

There  is  the  play  side  of  life  as  well  as  the  every- 
day struggle  for  existence.  Our  tired  bodies  worn  out 
with  work,  need  to  be  rebuilt,  or  re-created.  And  because 
of  man's  desire  for  this  re-creating,  or  recreation  as  we  call 
it,  he  chooses  the  society  of  his  fellows  so  that  he  may  play 
as  well  as  work. 

We  are  not  satisfied  to  have  the  houses  which  shelter 
us  mere  shelters  against  storm  and  wind.  We  like  the 
places  where  we  live  and  work  and  play  to  be  attractive. 


Reproduced  by  Courtesy  of  R.  E.  Slaley 

A  Library  Wagon  Stopping  at  a  Farmhouse 


A  Children's  Library  Room 


20  THE   COMMUNITY  AND   ITS   INTERESTS 

One  of  the  desires  of  the  community  is  to  have  the  neigh- 
borhood, town  or  city  as  beautiful  as  possible. 

But  our  community  is  much  larger  than  our  immediate 
neighborhood.  It  extends  out  through  our  city,  our  state, 
and  our  nation.  All  people  there  are  our  neighbors  and 
share  with  us  these  common  interests.  We  want  to  know 
what  is  going  on  in  other  parts  of  our  community.  Some- 
times we  travel  from  one  part  of  the  country  to  another, 
and  constantly  we  are  sending  things  to  even  the  most 
remote  corners  of  our  land.  All  this  means  that  pro- 
vision must  be  made  for  communication  and  transporta- 
tion, and  so  these  become  a  part  of  the  things  which  we 
desire. 

It  is  because  of  the  commonness  of  interest  which  we 
have  in  these  and  many  other  things  that  we  are  really 
one  great  family,  or  community.  As  members  of  these 
several  communities,  and  citizens  of  the  city,  state,  and 
nation,  it  is  necessary  that  we  know  something  of  how  we 

s 

as  a  united  people  work  together  to  bring  about  these 
things  which  we  desire. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  FURTHER   STUDY  AND   DISCUSSION 

i.  What  is  a  hermit?  How  does  he  live?  Is  he  really  independ- 
ent of  the  rest  of  the  community  ?  What  are  some  of  the  things  for 
which  he  must  rely  on  others?  What  can  he  produce  entirely  by 
himself  ? 

2.  How  did  Robinson  Crusoe  go  about  satisfying  his  needs  ?  What 
would  he  have  done  had  it  not  been  for  the  supplies  which  he  rescued 
from  the  wreck? 

3.  Describe  community  life  among  the  Indians. 

4.  Tell  the  story  of  the  founding  of  your  community. 


OUR  COMMON  INTERESTS  21 

5.  Why  is  your  town  or  city  located  where  it  is?  What  are  the 
particular  advantages  of  the  location?  What  has  been  responsible 
for  such  growth  as  it  has  had  ? 

6.  Make  a  list  of  the  most  important  things  which  people  in  com- 
munities are  seeking.  These  are  called  the  elements  of  welfare. 
Why? 


THE   ELEMENTS  OF   COMMUNITY 
WELFARE 


CHAPTER  V 
HEALTH 

In  the  spring  of  191 7  our  nation,  unable  to  endure  any 
longer  the  insults  and  atrocities  of  the  German  govern- 
ment, declared  war.  It  was  a  time  of  great  anxiety  and 
at  the  same  time  an  occasion  when  patriotism  ran  high. 
Before  the  machinery  of  selective  service  was  organized, 
thousands  of  the  young  men  of  the  country  reported 
at  the  recruiting  stations  and  asked  to  be  admitted  to  the 
Army.  It  was  a  shock  to  many  of  them  who  had  all  along 
thought  that  they  were  in  perfect  health  to  be  turned 
down  by  the  Army  surgeons  as  being  physically  unfit  to 
serve  their  country.  Defective  vision,  poor  hearing,  spinal 
curvature,  weakened  heart,  sickly  lungs,  stomach,  and 
kidneys,  fallen  arches,  and  all  manner  of  bodily  ailments 
were  discovered.  It  was  hot  a  pleasant  thing  to  be  told 
that  one  was  not  physically  fit  to  serve  one's  country. 
Some  went  from  station  to  station  trying  to  see  if  they  could 
not  get  into  some  branch  of  the  service,  only  to  be  rejected 
again  and  again. 

And  then  came  the  selective  service  act,  or  draft  as  it 
is  sometimes  called.     All  the  young  men  of  the  country 


HEALTH  23 

between  the  ages  of  twenty-one  and  thirty  years  were  re- 
quired to  report  and  register  themselves  for  selective  serv- 
ice. Here  was  a  splendid  lot  of  men.  The  flower  of  the 
nation  they  were  called.  And  yet  when  they  came  up 
before  the  local  boards  and  were  examined  as  to  their 
fitness,  it  was  the  same  story.  Man  after  man  was  found 
to  be  unfit  for  service  in  the  Army.  It  was  with  no  little 
chagrin  that  they  turned  away  from  the  physicians. 
Ashamed  to  face  their  friends  and  tell  them  that  they  were 
weaklings,  many  began  training  and  treatment  which  they 
knew  would  be  necessary  to  make  them  fit. 

One  of  the  great  lessons  which  the  war  brought  home  to 
the  people  of  the  American  nation  was  that  they  must 
pay  more  attention  to  the  development  of  their  bodies. 
It  was  one  of  the  penalties  which  had  to  be  paid  for  the 
type  of  community  life  so  many  had  been  living.  It 
made  clear  the  necessity  for  greater  care  of  the  health  of 
the  great  mass  of  people.  Improper  housing,  with  its  con- 
sequent lack  of  fresh,  pure  air ;  improper  food,  unsanitary, 
poorly  cooked,  and  improperly  eaten ;  lack  of  cleanliness 
of  person  and  surroundings  ;  alcohol  and  drugs ;  too  long 
hours  of  labor  and  under  bad  conditions  ;  lack  of  exercise  ; 
loss  of  sleep ;  —  these  and  many  more  were  seen  as  causes 
of  the  unfitness  of  our   men. 

What  a  difference  a  few  short  weeks  in  camp  made  in 
the  men  who  were  selected.  In  almost  every  case  they 
increased  in  weight,  grew  straighter  and  stronger,  and 
before  they  marched  away  to  the  front  they  were  sturdy 
men  of  whom  the  nation  might  be  proud. 

If  we  stop  for  a  moment  to  consider  the  facts  which 


24  THE  ELEMENTS   OF  COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

we  have  just  read,  we  shall  not  be  so  surprised  after  all. 
Most  of  the  difficulty  which  was  referred  to  was  found 
to  exist  among  the  young  men  who  had  been  born  and 
brought  up  in  the  great  cities.  When  people  are  living 
on  farms  and  largely  in  the  open  air  we  usually  find  that 
they  enjoy  much  better  health  than  those  who  spend 
their  lives  in  the  closely  built  cities.  Our  larger  towns 
and  cities  present  especially  difficult  problems  in  regard 
to  the  health  of  their  citizens.  The  closely  built  dwell- 
ings, the  crowded  living  conditions,  the  smoke  from  mill 
and  factory,  the  conditions  under  which  people  are  re- 
quired to  work,  all  make  for  poor  health.  It  is  small 
wonder  that  coming  from  such  surroundings  so  many  of 
the  young  men  of  the  nation  were  handicapped  with  disease 
and  physical  defect. 

If  we  turn  to  our  books  in  hygiene  we  shall  find  that 
there  are  certain  rules  which  are  laid  down  as  necessary 
for  the  attainment  and  preservation  of  good  health.  Among 
these  we  find  reference  made  to  the  necessity  for  breath- 
ing fresh,  pure  air  ;  drinking  plenty  of  pure  water  ;  eat- 
ing pure,  wholesome  food;  keeping  the  body  and  its  sur- 
roundings clean  ;  exercising ;  and  so  forth.  At  first  this 
all  seems  to  be  very  simple,  but  when  we  consider  it 
more  deeply  we  find  that  it  is  not  so  easy  after  all.  I 
cannot  breathe  pure  air  when  I  open  my  windows  or  go 
out  on  the  street  if  the  air  is  laden  with  smoke  and  gas 
and  dust.  We  shall  see  later  on  that  it  is  very  difficult 
to  tell  whether  or  not  the  water  which  comes  from  the 
faucet  is  pure.  The  food  which  I  buy  may  have  been 
tampered  with.     My  neighbor  may  litter  the  streets  with 


HEALTH  25 

filth.  In  fact  it  is  practically  impossible  to  obey  the 
simplest  rule  of  health  without  the  aid  of  my  neighbors. 
Let  us  look  at  some  of  these  things  as  we  find  them  in 
our  own  community  and  see  how  the  group  works  together 
in  the  interest  of  safeguarding  the  public  health. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  FURTHER   STUDY  AND   DISCUSSION 

1.  Why  does  the  Army  require  a  physical  examination  of  all  who 
desire  to  enlist  ?  Does  the  Navy  require  a  physical  examination  of  its 
candidates?    What  are  some  of  the  qualifications? 

2.  What  effect  has  the  life  in  the  Army  or  Navy  had  upon  any  young 
men  whom  you  know? 

3.  Make  a  list  of  some  of  the  conditions  in  your  community  which 
might  lead  to  the  breaking  down  of  one's  health.  How  would  you  sug- 
gest remedying  these  conditions? 

4.  Where  is  the  most  crowded  living  section  of  your  community? 
Describe  the  living  conditions  in  that  section.  What  class  or  nation- 
ality do  we  find  living  there? 

5.  What  is  meant  by  the  "  death  rate  "?  What  is  it  in  your  com- 
munity ?    Has  it  been  reduced  in  the  last  ten  years  ?    By  what  means  ? 

6.  What  are  some  of  the  advantages  of  living  in  the  country? 
What  are  some  of  the  disadvantages? 

PURE   AIR 

Need  for  Pure,  Fresh  Air.  —  One  of  the  conditions  which 
made  for  the  improvement  in  the  health  of  our  soldiers 
was  the  life  in  the  great  out-of-doors.  Many  a  man  who 
had  been  closely  confined  to  office  and  factory  and  never 
realized  why  he  was  sickly  and  under  weight  gained  per- 
fect health  and  put  on  the  needed  flesh  as  a  result  of  his 
life  in  the  fresh  air  and  sunlight.  There  is  not  one  of 
us  who  would  not  be  in  better  health  if  we  spent  more  time 
in  the  open  air. 


26  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

Our  manner  of  living,  however,  requires  that  much 
time  be  spent  indoors.  Boys  and  girls  live  in  the  open 
air  more  than  grown  folk,  but  if  you  take  a  pencil  and 
figure  how  many  hours  you  spend  in  the  home  and  at 
school,  you  will  see  that  it  represents  quite  a  goodly  part 
of  the  day.  There  is  no  air  quite  so  healthful  as  fresh, 
pure,  out-of-door  air.  In  our  larger  towns  and  cities, 
however,  even  this  air  is  often  not  as  pure  as  it  should 
be.  Smoke  and  gas  from  the  stacks  of  mill,  factory, 
and  foundry ;  dirt  and  dust  from  the  busy  streets ;  foul 
odors  from  nuisances,  —  all  tend  to  pollute  the  air  and  make 
it  unfit  to  breathe.  Then  too  our  homes  are  frequently 
built  more  with  a  view  toward  saving  coal  in  winter  than 
for  admitting  fresh  air.  The  hours  which  we  spend  in- 
doors are  none  too  productive  of  good  health. 

Let  us  look  at  some  of  the  means  by  which  the  com- 
munity endeavors  to  safeguard  the  health  of  its  members  by 
securing  for  each  one  the  right  to  breathe  fresh,  pure  air. 

Ventilation.  —  We  are  all  familiar  with  the  word  venti- 
lation. We  have  learned  from  our  lessons  in  hygiene  the 
necessity  for  having  proper  ventilation  of  the  rooms  in  which 
we  live  and  work.  At  home  when  we  retire  for  the  night 
we  are  careful  to  make  sure  that  the  windows  are  opened 
both  from  the  top  and  the  bottom  so  that  fresh  air  may 
enter  and  the  air  which  has  been  breathed  may  escape. 
Even  on  the  coldest  days  we  see  that  the  entire  house  is 
flushed  with  fresh  air  every  day  by  opening  all  the  windows, 
and  also  that  the  living  rooms  and  kitchen  are  frequently 
ventilated.  By  so  doing  we  are  taking  one  of  the  steps 
necessary  to  insure  good  health. 


HEALTH  27 

Our  schoolrooms  and  school  buildings  also  are  venti- 
lated. If  it  is  an  old  building  the  method  of  ventilation 
will  probably  be  the  same  as  that  which  we  use  in  our 
homes.  If  it  is  a  modern  building  it  may  have  a  com- 
plicated system  of  ventilation.  In  cold  weather  the  win- 
dows will  not  be  open  but  a  large  fan  will  be  forcing  filtered, 
heated,  and  it  may  even  be  washed  air  into  the  rooms, 
while  a  series  of  pipes  are  carrying  off  the  used  impure  air. 

Wherever  we  find  large  numbers  of  people  congre- 
gated as  in  churches,  theaters,  moving  picture  houses, 
and  the  like  we  also  find  that  care  has  been  taken  to  pro- 
vide an  adequate  supply  of  fresh,  pure  air.  Such  venti- 
lation of  public  places  is  required  by  law.  It  has  been 
discovered  that  the  air  in  buildings  where  large  numbers 
of  people  are  gathered  quickly  becomes  unfit  for  use  and 
must  be  replaced  with  fresh  air.  To  breathe  such  im- 
pure air  is  likely  to  cause  illness.  Then,  too,  disease  is 
spread  in  places  where  the  ventilation  facilities  are  poor. 

Housing  Conditions.  —  We  sometimes  use  the  ex- 
pression "  as  free  as  the  air."  It  is  true  that  air  is  free, 
but  as  we  have  seen  fresh,  pure  air  is  often  anything  but 
free  in  our  cities.  Unless  something  is  done  by  the  com- 
munity to  protect  the  purity  of  the  air  about  the  only 
way  the  citizen  can  make  sure  that  he  shall  have  pure  air 
for  at  least  a  part  of  each  day  is  to  move  to  a  section  of 
the  city  remote  from  the  places  of  business.  This  means 
that  money  must  be  spent  for  transportation,  and  then, 
too,  the  price  of  property  in  such  sections  is  often  higher 
than  that  of  the  more  crowded  and  less  desirable  sections. 


28  THE  ELEMENTS  OF   COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

Because  of  the  value  of  land  in  our  cities  it  is  cut  up  into 
small  plots.  Each  house  is  so  built  as  to  cover  nearly  the 
entire  plot  of  ground  on  which  it  stands.  Very  often 
we  find  in  the  older  sections  of  the  city  where  once  the 
wealthy  families  lived  that  the  large  houses  are  occupied 
as  rooming  or  tenement  houses.  Here  we  find  instead 
of  one  family  for  which  the  house  was  originally  intended 
often  as  many  families  as  there  are  rooms  in  the  house. 
The  conditions  in  such  places  are  often  far  from  sanitary. 
Rooms  which  were  intended  originally  as  merely  places 
for  storage  of  goods  and  therefore  were  built  with  little 
or  no  window  space  are  now  the  homes  of  whole  families. 
Then,  too,  there  is  the  tenement  house  built  in  the  days 
before  the  community  took  an  active  interest  in  such 
matters.  In  order  that  as  much  rent  as  possible  may 
be  gotten  out  of  the  building  we  find  at  times  both  out- 
side and  inside  rooms.  The  outside  rooms  are  not  so  bad, 
as  they  face  the  streets  or  alleys.  The  inside  rooms  often 
look  out  into  a  narrow  court  or  even  an  air  shaft.  When 
we  consider  that  such  buildings  are  sometimes  six,  eight, 
or  more  stories  high  we  can  see  that  the  ventilation  of  the 
inside  rooms  is  as  poor  as  possible.  Then,  too,  the  people 
who  live  in  such  tenements  often  do  not  realize  the  necessity 
for  ventilation  and  fail  to  make  use  of  such  means  as  are 
at  hand. 

It  is  little  wonder  that  in  the  crowded  tenement  sections 
of  our  cities  disease  has  flourished.  The  dreaded  "  white 
plague,"  or  tuberculosis,  reaps  a  terrible  harvest  in  these 
ill  ventilated,  poorly  lighted  tenements.  When  we  realize 
that  in  our  country  alone,  more  than  150,000  people  die 


HEALTH  29 

every  year  from  this  disease  and  that  the  great  majority 
of  these  are  city  dwellers,  we  get  some  idea  of  the  im- 
portance of  this  question  of  housing  and  ventilating.  If 
an  enemy  were  to  enter  our  country  and  destroy  a  small 
fraction  of  the  number  of  people  who  die  as  a  result  of 
improper  housing  conditions  we  would  raise  an  army  of 
millions  and  drive  it  away.  The  enemy  disease  is  even 
more  dangerous  than  such  an  enemy  would  be  because  it 
does  its  work  unseen.  It  is  our  duty  as  citizens  to  aid 
in  every  way  that  we  can,  the  fight  on  such  conditions 
as  we  have  been  considering  until  they  are  entirely  de- 
stroyed. 

Selecting  a  Home.  —  We  can  do  much  to  protect  our 
own  health  if  we  exercise  the  proper  care  in  the  selection 
of  a  home.  We  shall  see  in  a  later  chapter  how  the  com- 
munity is  endeavoring  by  careful  planning  to  set  aside 
certain  sections  of  the  city  as  residential  sections.  Of 
course  if  it  is  possible  it  is  a  splendid  thing  to  live  in  a 
section  where  the  houses  are  not  built  so  closely  together. 
The  facilities  for  rapid  transportation  make  this  a  com- 
paratively easy  matter.  However,  no  matter  where  we 
select  a  house  we  should  make  sure  that  it  is  in  a  good 
condition.  When  we  have  the  opportunity  to  select  one 
from  several  houses  we  should  take  the  one  which  is  best 
constructed  and  in  the  best  state  of  repair.  The  house 
which  receives  the  greatest  amount  of  sunlight,  which 
has  a  cemented,  dry,  and  light  cellar,  and  which  is  free  from 
objectionable  odors,  is  to  be  preferred.  In  selecting  an 
apartment  we  should  make  sure  that  it  is  well  ventilated 


30  THE   ELEMENTS  OF   COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

and  that  there  are  no  nuisances  near  by.  Before  moving 
into  it  we  should  make  sure  that  it  is  thoroughly  cleaned, 
preferably  washed  down  with  soap  and  water. 

Smoke  and  Other  Nuisances.  —  It  is  often  necessary 
for  many  people  to  live  in  a  neighborhood  where  when 
they  open  their  windows  instead  of  pure,  fresh  air,  smoke 
from  stacks  near  by  pours  in,  making  the  air  almost 
unbearable.  Or  it  may  be  that  a  neighbor  maintains  on 
his  own  ground  a  rubbish  pile,  or  a  garbage  can,  from 
which  offensive  odors  arise,  or  from  which  the  wind 
carries  dirt  and  filth.  How  can  we  breathe  fresh,  pure 
air  when  all.  the  air  which  we  receive  has  been  polluted? 
On  the  other  hand,  the  man  from  whose  rubbish  pile  the 
odors  are  arising,  or  the  owner  of  the  factory  from  whose 
stack  the  smoke  is  pouring,  may  claim  that  since  he  is 
on  his  own  land  he  may  do  as  he  pleases  and  if  we  do  not 
like  it  we  can  get  out. 

As  a  member  of  the  community  there  are  certain  things 
which  I  should  not  do.  If  I  have  the  interest  of  the  com- 
munity at  heart  I  shall  so  conduct  my  affairs  as  not  to  in- 
jure my  neighbors.  Any  member  of  the  community 
who  by  his  actions  injures  other  members  of  the  group 
has  not  the  welfare  of  the  group  at  heart.  He  is  not  a 
good  citizen.  It  is  within  the  right  and  power  of  the 
other  members  of  the  group  to  see  that  he  stops  such  ac- 
tions as  injure  them.  This  is  not  done  by  individual  but 
by  group  action.  That  which  the  group  expresses  as 
its  desire  is  a  law  of  the  group  which  each  member  must 
obey  or  take  the  consequences.     Many  communities  have 


HEALTH  31 

made  laws  which  cover  the  matters  about  which  we  have 
been  reading.  Mill  owners  are  required  to  adopt  smoke- 
consuming  devices,  railroads  to  electrify  their  lines,  and 
public  nuisances  must  be  abolished. 

The   Community  Working  Together.  —  We  have  here 
a  splendid  opportunity  to  see  how  the  many  work  as  one. 
If  each  one  of    us  was  compelled   to  rely  upon   himself 
for  protection   against  the   things  about  which  we  have 
been  reading  we  would  be  helpless.     The  men  who  owned 
the  land   could  put  up   any   kind  of  house  or  tenement 
they   pleased.     It  might  be   unsanitary  in  every   respect 
and  dangerous  to  our  health,  but  unless  we  were  in  a  posi- 
tion to  build  a  place  of  our  own  or  to  pay  a  higher  rent 
to  get  a  better  house,  we  would  be  entirely  at  their  mercy. 
That  which  affects  the  health  of  one  member  of  the  group, 
however,  affects  the  welfare  of  all.     Experience,  growing  out 
of  the  spread  of  disease  and  death  from  such  improper  liv- 
ing conditions,  has  led  the  group  to  make  rules  for  the  pro- 
tection of  its  members  from  just  this  sort  of  thing.     You 
will  find  that  in  your  community  there  are  men  and  women 
who  represent  the  entire  group  and  look  after  the  welfare 
of  the   community   in   respect   to   these   matters.     There 
are  the  building  inspectors,  who  see  that  the  requirements 
of  the  law  are  observed  when  new  houses  are  being  erected. 
Then  there  are  the  sanitary  inspectors,  who  enforce  the 
laws  respecting  the  health  conditions  in  our  homes  and 
places  of  business.     When  conditions  are  found  which  are 
believed  to  be  a  menace  to  health  the  persons  responsible 
are  required  to  remove  the  cause.     If  this  is  not  done  after 


32  THE  ELEMENTS  OF   COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

sufficient  warning  has  been  given,  they  may  be  arrested 
and  fined.  In  cases  where  the  owner  of  the  property 
refuses  to  remedy  conditions  the  community  will  have 
the  work  done  and  then  compel  the  owner  to  pay  the  bill. 

Private  Organizations  at  Work.  —  If  we  trace  the  his- 
tory of  the  laws  for  bettering  the  living  conditions  in  our 
community  we  shall  find  in  many  cases  that  some  organ- 
ization of  private  citizens  has  been  back  of  the  move- 
ment for  the  passage  of  the  laws.  The  great  mass  of  people 
even  though  they  may  be  suffering  from  some  evil  condi- 
tion will  not  know  just  how  to  go  about  having  it  remedied. 
In  fact  they  often  feel  that,  that  which  is,  must  continue. 
In  such  cases  the  work  of  private  organizations  is  of  great 
importance.  Members  of  some  club  or  civic  organiza- 
tion become  interested  in  a  matter  concerning  health. 
They  begin  work  by  attracting  the  attention  of  the  people 
to  the  existing  condition.  Then  after  a  campaign  of  edu- 
cating the  people  up  to  a  knowledge  of  their  needs  and 
rights,  they  go  to  the  men  who  make  the  laws,  and,  with 
the  backing  of  the  now  interested  public,  get  a  law  passed 
which  covers  the  situation.  It  is  then  necessary  for  them 
to  keep  at  work  to  see  that  the  desires  of  the  people  as 
they  are  expressed  in  the  new  law  are  carried  out.  Often 
in  the  beginning  they  will  conduct  the  investigations, 
report  to  the  authorities,  and  even  pay  for  the  prosecu- 
tion of  the  violators  of  the  new  law.  As  we  get  older  we 
shall  find  that  one  of  the  best  ways  in  which  we  can  serve 
our  community  is  by  co-operating  with  and  belonging 
to  some  of  these  civic  organizations. 


HEALTH  33 

SUGGESTIONS   FOR  FURTHER   STUDY  AND   DISCUSSION 

i.  Why  should  we  observe  the  rule  "  Breathe  deeply  of  pure,  fresh 
air  "  ?    What  are  some  of  the  ill  effects  of  breathing  impure  air  ? 

2.  How  do  men  live  in  a  submarine  ?  in  deep  mines  ?  in  tunnel- 
ing under  a  river  or  through  a  mountain  ? 

3.  How  were  our  soldiers  protected  from  poisonous  gases  in  the 
trenches?    How  were  the  dugouts  and  bombproof s  ventilated? 

4.  Describe  the  system  of  ventilation  used  in  your  school.  How 
is  your  church  ventilated?  the  movies? 

5.  In  front  of  garages  and  automobile  stores  we  sometimes  see 
the  sign  "  Free  Air."  Of  what  value  is  it  that  it  should  be  so  adver- 
tised ?    What  are  some  of  the  ways  in  which  we  add  value  to  the  air  ? 

6.  What  are  some  of  the  building  regulations  of  your  community 
which  relate  to  pure  air  ? 

7.  Why  is  an  air  shaft  a  poor  method  of  ventilating  a  tenement 
house  ? 

8.  What  agencies  are  fighting  the  "  white  plague  "  in  your  com- 
munity ?    How  are  they  doing  it  ? 

9.  Make  a  list  of  the  nuisances  in  your  neighborhood  which  render 
the  air  impure?  How  would  you  go  about  having  such  conditions 
corrected  ? 

10.  What  advantage  would  it  be  to  a  factory  owner  to  install  a  smoke- 
consuming  device  ? 

11.  Find  out  all  you  can  about  the  private  organizations  which  are 
at  work  in  your  community  aiding  in  the  fight  for  pure  air. 

12.  What  is  the  O  eta  via  Hill  Association? 

PURE  WATER 

Water  and  Health.  —  Next  to  air  water  is  probably 
the  most  necessary  thing  for  our  lives.-  Deprived  of  air 
we  should  die  almost  at  once ;  deprived  of  water  it  would 
be  a  matter  of  but  a  few  days  before  we  should  die  of 
thirst.  It  is  necessary  therefore  for  the  very  life  of  the 
community  that  there  be  a  plentiful  supply  of  water  for 
drinking  purposes.     Cities  are  not  found  on  the  desert. 


34  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

When  people  live  in  places  where  there  is  no  natural  source 
of  supply  of  water,  it  is  necessary  that  the  water  be 
brought  from  a  distance.  We  need  water,  however,  not 
only  for  drinking  but  for  cooking,  cleaning,  and  in  in- 
dustry. In  determining  the  site  of  a  new  community 
one  of  the  most  important  precautions  taken  is  to  make 
sure  that  the  water  supply  will  be  sufficient  for  the  needs 
of  the  community. 

Water  is  most  important  to  the  health  of  the  community. 
Not  only  do  our  bodies  require  water  to  sustain  life,  but 
also  for  purposes  of  cleanliness.  Disease  and  dirt  go 
hand  in  hand.  Disease  germs  lurk  in  dirt  and  filth. 
Cleanliness  must  be  added  to  fresh  air  and  sunshine  in 
our  homes  if  we  are  to  be  free  from  disease.  Soap  and 
water  are  believed  to-day  to  be  the  best  disinfectants. 
A  community  where  the  supply  of  water  for  washing  is 
insufficient  cannot  be  a  healthful  community.  One  of 
the  difficulties  in  the  slum  sections  of  our  cities  is  the  in- 
adequate water  supply. 

Water  and  Disease.  —  Water  not  only  plays  an  im- 
portant part  in  making  for  the  health  of  the  community, 
but  it  may  also  be  a  source  for  the  spread  of  disease.  One 
of  the  reasons  for  the  high  death-rate  in  cities  in  the  past 
was  that  a  disease  was  spread  through  the  communities 
by  the  drinking  of  impure  water.  This  disease  is  called 
typhoid  fever.  The  germs  which  are  responsible  for  this 
disease  cannot  be  seen  in  the  water.  Sometimes  apparently 
pure  water  will  be  filled  with  them.  Since  water  is  used 
by  every  member  of  the  community  it  becomes  a  very 


HEALTH  35 

important  problem  to  see  that  the  water  which  is  supplied 
for  drinking  purposes  is  free  from  the  germs  of  this  disease. 

Sources  of  Water  Supply.  —  Our  great  cities  are  situ- 
ated where  they  are,  not  because  of  the  purity  of  the  water 
supply  which  they  receive,  but  because  of  certain  advan- 
tages for  trade  and  industry  which  the  location  affords. 
When  the  site  of  the  town  was  originally  selected  the  water 
of  lake  or  river  by  which  the  town  was  located  may  have 
been  free  from  impurities.  As  the  place  developed  and 
more  especially  as  other  towns  or  cities  were  established 
along  the  banks  of  the  lake  or  river  the  water  became 
anything  but  pure.  Offering,  however,  the  handiest 
source  of  water  supply  it  continued  to  supply  the  needs 
of  the  place. 

How  the  Water  Supply  Becomes  Polluted.  —  Large 
bodies  and  streams  of  water  afford  not  only  a  convenient 
source  of  supply  for  the  water  of  a  place  but  also  offer 
an  easy  way  of  getting  rid  of  the  waste  water  which  has 
been  used  for  the  various  household  and  industrial  pur- 
poses. For  many  years  it  was  the  practice  of  towns  and 
cities  to  pour  their  sewage  into  the  streams  at  some  point 
below  where  they  secured  the  fresh  water,  regardless  of 
any  other  places  which  might  be  relying  on  that  same 
stream  for  their  water  supply.  Then,  too,  rubbish  and 
garbage  and  other  filth  are  sometimes  thrown  into  the 
stream  by  careless  persons. 

If,  then,  by  any  means  it  happened  that  there  were  people 
in  these  places  who  were  ill  with  typhoid  fever  the  germs 
of  this  disease  were  washed  into  the  river  along  with  the 


36  THE   ELEMENTS  OF   COMMUNITY   WELFARE 

rest  of  the  waste.  When  the  people  lower  down  the  stream 
made  use  of  this  disease-polluted  water  for  drinking  purposes 
they  too  would  develop  the  disease.  In  this  manner 
much  disease,  suffering,  and  death  were  spread  from  one 
community  to  another. 

Protection  by  Individual  Effort.  —  Each  member  of 
the  community  may  take  the  necessary  precautions  for 
protecting  himself  from  the  ravages  of  this  disease.  Re- 
gardless of  the  source  of  supply  of  the  water  or  of  its  purity, 
if  people  would  boil  all  water  which  they  intend  to  use  for 
drinking  purposes,  they  would  be  reasonably  safe  from  the 
danger  of  typhoid.  There  are  times,  after  the  measures 
taken  by  the  community  as  a  whole  have  failed,  when  the 
health  authorities  send  out  warning  to  the  citizens  to 
take  this  precaution.  Such  a  procedure,  however,  throws 
the  responsibility  on  the  individual.  Unfortunately  there 
are  people  who  do  not  realize  the  danger  to  themselves  and 
to  others  and  who  neglect  to  do  as  they  are  told.  Not  only 
would  they  be  likely  to  pay  the  penalty  for  their  careless- 
ness by  contracting  the  disease,  but  their  neighbors  who  had 
been  faithfully  trying  to  protect  themselves  would  be  ex- 
posed to  it  from  other  sources  than  drinking  water.  This 
matter  of  protection  from  disease  has  been  recognized  as  of 
such  importance  that  the  community  has  been  unwilling  to 
trust  its  health  in  the  hands  of  the  careless  or  negligent. 

Another  method  which  might  be  adopted  for  individual 
protection  is  that  of  vaccination.  Every  soldier  in  our 
Army  is  required  to  submit  to  inoculation  against  ty- 
phoid.    This  has  proved  to  be  a  most  effective  measure 


HEALTH  37 

and  has  reduced  the  amount  of  typhoid  fever  in  the  Army 
until  it  is  almost  negligible.  This  is  most  remarkable 
when  we  remember  that  in  the  past  typhoid  alone  killed 
more  of  our  soldiers  than  the  bullets  of  the  enemy.  Such 
precaution  is  absolutely  necessary  in  the  Army,  where, 
because  of  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  pure  water,  great 
risk  is  run  from  outbreaks  of  typhoid  fever. 

Protection  by  Community  Effort.  —  It  is  very  necessary 
for  the  health  of  the  community  that  the  pollution  of  the 
water  supply  be  prevented.  But  this  involves  compel- 
ling members  of  other  town  and  city  communities  to  dis- 
pose of  their  sewage  and  waste  in  certain  prescribed  ways. 
The  members  of  each  of  these  smaller  communities  are 
also  members  of  the  larger  community,  the  state.  Just 
as  the  individual  in  the  smaller  community  is  not  allowed 
to  do  just  as  he  pleases  if  his  action  is  injurious  to  the 
group,  so  in  the  larger  community  the  various  cities  and 
towns  are  required  to  respect  the  rights  of  the  other  smaller 
communities.  The  larger  group,  the  state,  desires  that 
the  health  of  its  parts  be  protected,  and  so  it  usually  wills 
by  means  of  laws  that  sewage  along  the  sources  of  water 
supply  must  be  disposed  of  in  certain  ways.  A  town 
may  not  empty  its  sewage  into  the  river  which  is  the  source 
of  the  drinking  supply  of  another  community. 

Filtration.  —  Cities  which  take  their  water  from  near-by 
rivers  and  streams  protect  themselves  from  the  ravages 
of  typhoid  by  treating  the  water  so  as  to  remove  the  germs 
of  disease.  This  is  done  by  the  removal  and  destruction 
of  disease  germs  through  the  process  of  filtration.     Before 


38  THE   ELEMENTS  OF   COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

the  present  system  of  filtration  was  introduced  the  city  of 
Philadelphia  had  the  highest  death-rate  from  typhoid 
fever  of  any  large  city  in  the  United  States.  This  was 
due  to  the  fact  that  the  cities  and  towns  located  on  the 
two  rivers  from  which  Philadelphia  drew  her  water  supply 
emptied  their  sewage  and  waste  into  these  rivers.  The 
water  which  was  pumped  into  the  homes  of  the  city  was 
not  only  dirty  and  foul-smelling,  but  often  laden  with  the 
germs  of  disease.  To-day  an  effective  system  of  filtration 
has  reduced  the  number  of  cases  of  typhoid  to  a  minimum. 
Most  of  the  cases  which  are  now  found  in  the  city  are 
brought  in  by  returning  vacationists  who  have  been  drink- 
ing polluted  water  or  bathing  in  infected  streams. 

Home  Methods.  —  You  may  have  seen  a  farmer  in 
the  country  tie  several  pieces  of  cheese-cloth  over  the 
mouth  of  the  pump.  He  does  this  so  that  if  any  im- 
purities, such  as  leaves,  or  sticks,  are  pumped  up  from  the 
well  they  will  not  get  into  the  water  which  he  wishes  to 
use.  This  is  a  very  crude  filter  and  does  not  make  the 
water  safe  to  drink.  Some  of  us  may  have  seen  the 
small  filter  which  we  sometimes  attach  to  the  faucet  at 
home.  Here  the  water  is  forced  through  a  cylinder  or 
block  of  porous  stone.  This  is,  of  course,  better  than  the 
cloth  filter,  but  although  it  clears  the  water  it  does  not 
remove  all  the  disease  germs.  The  only  safe  filter  is  that 
in  which  the  water  passes  through  several  feet  of  sand 
or  stone.  Such  filters  are  so  expensive  that  only  the  rich 
could  afford  to  have  them.  The  health  of  the  community 
is  such   an  important  matter  that  we  cannot  afford   to 


HEALTH 


39 


let  each  individual  look  out  for  himself,  and  so  we  find 
the  community  even  in  our  smaller  cities  often  installing 
filtration  plants. 

A  City  Filter.  —  When  water  is  taken  directly  from  a 
river  it  is  usually  quite  cloudy  with  dirt.     In  order  that 


A  Filter  Bed 

the  filters  may  not  be  required  to  handle  all  this  and  so 
become  clogged  quickly,  the  water  is  first  pumped  into 
reservoirs  where  it  is  allowed  to  stand  for  a  number  of  hours. 
The  heavy  dirt  will  sink  to  the  bottom.  To  still  further 
clear  the  water  it  is  next  pumped  through  tanks  which 
contain  sand  and  gravel.  These  tanks  are  really  just 
large  strainers  which  strain  off  the  finer  mud  which  has 
not  settled  in  the  first  process.  The  water  is  then  carried 
to  the  slow  sand  filters.     These  consist  of  great  chambers 


HEALTH  41 

filled  with  a  number  of  feet  of  fine  sand  and  gravel.  As 
the  water  is  pumped  into  these  rooms  it  gradually  filters 
down  through  the  sand  and  gravel.  In  this  process  not 
only  is  the  remaining  dirt  removed  but  the  greater  part 
of  the  disease  germs  are  destroyed. 

In  time  these  great  sand  filters  become  clogged  with  the 
dirt  which  they  have  removed  from  the  water.  It  is 
then  necessary  to  clean  them.  A  number  of  men  are  kept 
busy  at  this  work.  We  see  them  shoveling  off  the  top 
layer  of  sand  from  a  bed  which  has  been  drained  off  and 
carting  it  away  to  the  machines  which  wash  the  sand  by 
forcing  clean  water  through  it.  The  impurities  are  thrown 
away  and  the  sand  is  ready  to  be  used  again.  A  city  filtra- 
tion plant  will  contain  many  such  sand  beds,  so  that  the 
city  may  continue  to  receive  filtered  water  even  when 
some  of  the  beds  are  being  purified. 

A  Pure  Source.  —  Some  communities,  however,  have 
not  been  satisfied  to  take  impure  water  and  by  filtering 
it  make  it  fit  for  use.  New  York  City,  for  example,  in 
order  to  have  an  adequate  supply  of  pure  water  has  gone 
more  than  a  hundred  miles  from  the  city  up  into  the  Cats- 
kill  Mountains  and  there  built  the  largest  reservoir  for 
city  water  supply  in  America.  By  controlling  the  streams 
which  feed  the  Ashokan  reservoir  the  safety  of  the  water 
supply  is  insured.  The  city  of  Los  Angeles  has  gone  more 
than  two  hundred  miles  in  order  that  it  might  be  supplied 
with  pure  water  from  the  mountain  streams  of  the  Sierras. 
In  other  cities  we  find  artesian  wells  supplying  water  which 
has  been  filtered  through  many  hundreds  of  feet  of  sand 
and  rock. 


42  THE   ELEMENTS  OF   COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

Cost.  —  It  will  readily  be  seen  that  any  of  the  methods 
described  involves  the  expenditure  of  great  sums  of  money. 
Philadelphia  has  already  spent  about  70  million  dollars 
on  its  water  supply  system.  New  York  paid  more  than 
150  million  dollars  for  the  tunnel  connecting  the  Ashokan 
reservoir  with  the  city.  Nearly  every  city  in  the  country 
has  spent  proportionately  large  sums  of  money  to  make  sure 
of  an  adequate  and  safe  water  supply  system.  Not  only 
is  it  expensive  to  install  a  water  supply  system,  but  it  is 
also  very  costly  to  maintain  it.  Millions  of  dollars  are 
spent  every  year  for  the  maintenance  and  repair  of  the  water 
supply  systems  of  our  large  cities. 

Water  Rents  and  Meters.  —  All  these  expenses  must 
be  born  by  the  people  who  use  the  water.  Since  there  is 
no  member  of  the  community  who  does  not  make  use  of 
water  you  will  see  that  the  expense  must  fall  upon  every 
one.  Where  water  is  supplied  by  a  community  to  its  mem- 
bers the  cost  is  usually  met  by  charging  for  the  water  used 
in  each  house  or  place  of  business.  The  old  method  was 
to  charge  a  water  rent.  This  was  a  flat  charge  of  so  many 
dollars  a  year  for  each  faucet  of  a  certain  size  used  on  the 
premises.  Since  some  people  are  likely  to  be  very  wasteful 
of  water  and  let  it  run  carelessly  to  waste  it  seems  to  be 
unfair  that  they  should  have  to  pay  no  more  than  those 
of  us  who  realize  the  value  of  water  and  are  careful  in  its 
use.  To  overcome  this  unfairness  water  meters  are  in- 
stalled. This  makes  each  householder  and  business  man 
pay  for  just  the  amount  of  water  which  he  uses.  A  dis- 
tinction is  made  between  the  rate  charged  to  a  place  of 
business  and  a  private  home.     Why? 


HEALTH  43 

Waste  and  Saving.  —  There  has  been  a  tremendous 
waste  of  water  in  our  communities  just  as  there  has  been 
waste  in  many  other  things.  The  adoption  of  the  water 
meter  is  one  of  the  best  means  of  checking  and  preventing 
this  waste.  This  reduces  the  cost  of  supplying  the  water 
and  enables  the  authorities  to  spend  the  money  saved 
on  improving  the  water  supply.  We  can  do  much  to  help 
prevent  waste  by  being  careful  to  see  that  the  faucet  is 
turned  off  tightly  after  we  have  finished  using  the  water. 
We  may  help  our  community  by  reporting  leaking  faucets 
and  hydrants  when  we  discover  them.  A  leaking  faucet 
or  hydrant  is  practically  letting  the  community's  money 
run  right  into  the  sewer. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  FURTHER   STUDY  AND    DISCUSSION 

i.  Compare  the  typhoid  records  in  the  National  Army  cantonments 
with  those  of  the  Spanish-American  war. 

2.  Make  a  list  of  the  various  uses  of  water.  Classify  these  under 
main  heads.  For  which  purposes  might  unfiltered  or  impure  water  be 
used? 

3.  Describe  the  system  of  water  supply  in  your  community. 

4.  Compare  the  cost  of  water  to  a  city  dweller  with  that  of  the 
country  dweller  who  desires  to  have  running  water  in  his  house. 

5.  What  is  the  source  of  the  water  supply  of  your  community? 
Is  it  satisfactory? 

6.  Draw  a  rough  sketch  map  of  the  country  drained  by  the  river 
from  which  the  water  supply  of  your  community  is  obtained.  Indicate 
any  possible  sources  of  stream  pollution. 

7.  Make  a  visit  to  the  waterworks  of  your  community.  Write  a 
description  of  your  visit.  If  you  have  a  camera  it  might  be  interesting 
to  illustrate  your  story  with  photographs. 

8.  What  are  the  laws  in  your  state  concerning  stream  pollution? 

9.  If  the  water  for  your  community  is  filtered,  make  a  visit  to  the 
filtration  plant. 

10.  Make  a  sketch  showing  the  general  plan  of  a  sand  filter. 


44  THE  ELEMENTS  OF   COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

ii.  How  do  you  pay  for  the  water  which  you  use  ? 

12.  Mention  some  of  the  ways  in  which  water  is  wasted  in  your 
community.     How  could  this  be  prevented? 

13.  Subject  for  debate.  Resolved,  that  the  plan  of  securing  water 
at  a  safe  source  as  is  used  in  New  York  city  is  better  than  that  of  puri- 
fying water  secured  from  an  unsafe  source  as  is  done  in  Philadelphia. 

SEWAGE   DISPOSAL 

Danger  from  Improper  Disposal.  —  The  cost  of  water 
to  a  community  does  not  end  when  the  water  has  been  de- 
livered at  the  faucets.  The  health  not  only  of  the  home 
community,  but  also  of  adjoining  communities,  may  be 
imperiled  by  the  improper  disposal  of  the  waste  which  is 
carried  away  in  the  used  water.  After  water  has  been 
used  for  cooking,  bathing,  cleaning,  it  is  full  of  impurities 
which  if  not  properly  handled  may  easily  become  a 
menace  to  the  public  health.  We  all  know  how  quickly 
a  puddle  of  water  becomes  offensive,  especially  in  hot 
weather.  Grease  from  our  kitchens  will  quickly  become 
a  breeding  place  for  flies,  and  stagnant  water  for  mos- 
quitoes. Even  the  rain  and  snow  which  falls  into  our 
streets  must  be  gotten  rid  of  quickly.  If  it  were  allowed 
to  remain  in  puddles  in  our  streets  until  it  had  drained 
off  through  the  surface  it  would  become  a  serious  problem. 
Our  cellars  would  catch  the  water  as  it  filtered  out  through 
the  ground  and  soon  become  breeding  places  for  disease. 
So  it  is  that  the  community  having  delivered  the  water 
to  the  houses  must  also  provide  some  safe  way  of  dispos- 
ing of  the  filth  and  waste  which  this  water  carries  off. 

Methods  of  Sewage  Disposal.  —  The  easiest  way  to  get 
rid  of  waste  water  or  sewage  is  to  let  it  flow  into  a  near-by 


HEALTH  45 

river  or  stream.  But  this  is  not  sufficient.  Where  cities 
are  on  tidal  rivers  the  waste  is  washed  back  past  the  city 
and  often  pollutes  the  stream  at  the  source  of  the  town's 
supply.  And  even  when  this  does  not  happen,  communi- 
ties situated  down  the  stream  suffer  because  of  our  care- 
lessness and  are  put  to  great  expense  to  secure  a  safe  water 
supply.  Many  of  our  state  communities,  realizing  the 
dangers  attendant  upon  this  method  of  sewage  disposal, 
have  forbidden  the  pollution  of  streams  in  this  manner. 
The  result  has  been  that  each  local  community  has  been 
compelled  to  adopt  some  method  of  sewage  disposal  which 
will  not  result  in  injury  to  the  health  of  other  com- 
munities. 

Many  large  cities  have  sewage  disposal  plants  that 
resemble  somewhat  the  filtration  plants  which  we  have 
just  considered.  The  waste  water  is  carried  to  these 
plants  through  the  sewers  of  the  city.  As  it  enters  the 
plant  it  is  caught  in  large  tanks  where  it  is  allowed  to 
stand  until  most  of  the  heavier  solid  matter  has  settled  to 
the  bottom.  These  tanks  are  called  sedimentation  tanks. 
The  sediment  that  falls  in  these  tanks  gets  partly  rid  of 
the  harmful  bacteria  which  it  contains  by  the  action  of 
friendly  bacteria  that  work  upon  it  a  while  in  the  darkness. 
This  process  is  completed  when  the  sediment  is  taken  from 
the  tanks  and  spread  out  in  the  sunlight  to  dry.  This 
dried  material  is  used  as  fertilizer.  The  liquid  sewage 
which  comes  from  the  sedimentation  tank  is  sprayed  out 
from  a  number  of  little  fountains  and  thus  exposed  to  the 
air  and  sunlight.  Afterward  it  passes  through  filters  of 
sand  or  gravel.     This  process  is  repeated  a  number  of 


46  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

times  until  the  liquid  may  be  discharged  into  the  river 
without  danger  of  injury  to  the  health  of  any  one. 

There  are  other  ways  of  disposing  of  sewage  so  that  it 
will  not  be  harmful  to  the  health  of  our  own  or  other  com- 
munities. In  some  coastal  cities  the  sewage  is  treated 
with  chemicals.  This  causes  the  solid  matter  to  be  sepa- 
rated from  the  liquid.  The  liquid  is  then  emptied  into 
the  river,  while  the  solid  matter  is  carried  on  barges 
and  dumped  into  the  sea.  In  some  cities  the  sewage  is 
used  to  irrigate  and  fertilize  farms  outside  the  city.  In 
this  way  the  sewage  is  safely  disposed  of  and  with  a  profit. 
This  method  is  impracticable,  however,  for  a  large  city. 
It  also  can  be  used  only  where  crops  may  be  raised  through- 
out the  year,  as  in  some  of  our  southern  towns. 

Surface  Water  and  Sewage.  —  Most  of  the  sewerage 
systems  of  our  cities  were  built  in  the  days  when  little  or 
no  attention  was  paid  to  the  problem  .of  safety  in  sewage 
disposal.  All  that  was  thought  to  be  necessary  was  a 
system  of  pipes  to  carry  the  waste  water  to  the  rivers. 
If  you  have  ever  noticed  when  the  streets  have  been  torn 
up  you  will  remember  that  the  sewerage  pipes  are  much 
larger  than  the  water  pipes  which  bring  the  water  to  our 
homes.  These  were  planned  so  as  to  be  large  enough  to 
handle  not  only  the  waste  water  from  our  homes  but  also 
the  surface  water  which  has  to  be  taken  care  of  during 
every  rain  storm.  In  spite  of  the  precautions  which  have 
been  taken  to  build  large  sewerage  mains,  occasionally 
during  a  very  heavy  rain  storm  the  pipes  are  not  large 
enough  to  handle  all  the  water  and  it  backs  up  into  our 
cellars  or  even  comes  out  of  the  inlets  in  the  lower  sections. 


HEALTH  47 

If  a  city  with  such  a  sewerage  system  is  compelled  to 
adopt  one  of  the  methods  of  safe  sewage  disposal  about 
which  we  have  been  reading,  the  disposal  plant  will 
have  to  handle  all  the  water  which  comes  through  the 
pipes.  Where  new  sections  of  an  old  city  are  being  planned 
or  when  the  old  sewer  pipes  have  to  be  replaced,  we  fre- 
quently find  that  there  are  two  sets  of  pipes  installed. 
One  set  handles  the  sewage  from  houses  and  so  forth  which 
must  be  purified  before  being  emptied  into  the  stream  ; 
the  other  handles  only  the  surface  water.  Such  a  system, 
while  expensive  to  install,  saves  in  time  because  of  the  re- 
duced cost  of  operating  the  disposal  plant. 

Plumbing  and  Health.  —  Have  you  ever  noticed  the 
pipe  which  leads  from  the  sink  in  your  kitchen  or  from 
the  washstand  in  your  bathroom?  If  you  have,  you  will 
remember  that  it  is  not  straight  but  is  bent  so  as  to  form  a 
letter  U.  This  is  called  a  trap.  The  U-shaped  part  of 
the  pipe  is  always  full  of  water  which  acts  as  a  plug  pre- 
venting the  impure  and  foul-smelling  gases  which  rise 
from  the  sewer  from  coming  up  into  our  homes.  Im- 
proper or  defective  plumbing  might  permit  this  gas  to 
injure  the  health  of  the  community,  so  that  especial  care  is 
taken  that  all  plumbing  work  be  inspected  by  health  officers. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  FURTHER   STUDY  AND    DISCUSSION 

i.  Describe  the  system  of  sewage  disposal  in  use  in  your  community, 

2.  What  laws  are  there  in  your  state  determining  the  method  of 
sewage  disposal? 

3.  Who  are  the  officers  who  are  in  charge  of  the  enforcement  of 
these  state  laws? 

4.  What  is  meant  by  a  "  registered  plumber  "  ? 


CHAPTER  VI 

HEALTH   (Continued) 

PURE  FOOD 

One  morning,  early  in  the  fall  of  191 7,  the  citizens  of  a 
little  country  town  just  outside  the  limits  of  one  of  our 
National  Army  Cantonments  were  surprised  to  see  the 
military  police  on  guard  in  front  of  some  of  their  largest 
stores  and  the  single  restaurant  of  which  the  town  boasted. 
Civilians  were  allowed  to  enter,  but  if  a  soldier  made  the 
attempt  he  was  stopped  by  the  guards  and  ordered  away. 
And  yet  there  were  other  stores  selling  the  same  kind  of 
goods  which  were  unmolested.    What  could  be  the  matter  ? 

Each  one  of  these  places  sold  food.  Now  Uncle  Sam 
was  very  particular  as  to  the  kind  of  food  which  his  soldiers 
should  eat.  He  had  gone  to  great  expense  to  provide 
clean,  wholesome  food  for  his  men,  and  he  did  not  care  to 
have  them  go  outside  the  camp  and  buy  food  which  might 
result  in  their  being  made  ill.  Sanitary  officers  had  in- 
spected the  shops  of  the  town  and  had  discovered  that 
some  of  them  were  careless  in  the  manner  in  which  they 
handled  their  foodstuffs.  Meats  were  not  kept  in  re- 
frigerators. Food  was  left  on  the  counters  exposed  to 
flies  and  dirt.  And  so  such  places  were  quarantined,  and 
no  soldier  was  allowed  to  enter  until  the  strict  requirements 
for  sanitation  demanded  by  the  Army  were  observed. 

48 


HEALTH  49 

How  Food  Becomes  Impure.  —  When  people  live  on 
farms  where  they  produce  practically  all  of  the  food  which 
they  use,  they  are  able  to  guard  themselves  against  impure 
food  by  exercising  precautions  in  its  handling  and  care. 
In  our  larger  towns  and  cities,  however,  the  people  are 
dependent  almost  if  not  entirely  on  others  for  their  food. 
A  city  will  draw  its  food  supplies  from  the  country  for 
hundreds  of  miles  around,  and,  in  the  case  of  some  com- 
modities bring  them  from  the  far  corners  of  the  nation. 
This  means  that  their  food  is  produced,  transported,  and 
in  many  instances  prepared  by  others.  If  every  one  were 
conscientious  about  his  work,  and  did  his  duty  faithfully, 
the  necessary  precautions  would  always  be  taken,  and  the 
food  would  reach  the  consumer  as  pure  as  it  is  possible 
to  have  it. 

Unfortunately  all  people  are  not  as  careful  as  they  should 
be.  Some  are  simply  careless,  others  are  deliberately 
dishonest,  and  in  order  to  increase  their  own  gains  neglect 
the  care  which  should  be  taken.  Food  is  so  important 
to  the  health  of  the  nation,  and  impure  food  can  work 
such  injury  to  the  people  who  use  it,  that  the  one  who  is 
guilty  of  neglect  or  wilful  tampering  with  the  purity  of 
the  food  supply  is  an  enemy  to  the  community. 

The  careless  handling  of  foodstuffs  is  responsible  for 
much  impurity  of  food.  Carelessness  in  regard  to  proper 
refrigeration  of  perishable  foods ;  the  exposure  of  food 
to  flies,  and  the  dirt  and  dust  from  store  and  street ;  in- 
discriminate handling  of  meats,  cakes,  and  so  forth,  by 
customers  ;  lack  of  sanitary  precautions  by  dealers  ;  —  these 
are  the  chief  sources  of  impurities. 


50  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

Then,  too,  we  have  the  deliberate  adulteration  of  foods. 
Milk  is  watered,  not  only  decreasing  its  food  value  and 
thus  endangering  the  health  of  infants,  but  also  at  times 
causing  the  introduction  of  disease  germs  such  as  typhoid. 
Cheap  vegetable  fats  are  mixed  with  butter.  You  will 
be  able  to  extend  the  list  considerably.  Sometimes  meats 
which  have  spoiled,  and  are  unfit  for  human  consump- 
tion, are  treat^oVwith  chemicals  which  make  them  seem  as 
if  they  were  freshly  slaughtered.  Chemical  preservatives 
are  used  to  insure  that  inferior  or  partly  spoiled  articles 
shall  appear  to  be  good. 

Dangers  from  Impure  Food.  —  We  must  eat  moderately 
of  a  wholesome,  well-cooked,  well-balanced  diet  if  we  are  to 
preserve  our  health.  Along  with  pure  air  and  pure  water 
must  go  pure,  wholesome  food.  We  could  all  cite  some 
instance  of  illness  caused  by  impure  food.  A  very  severe 
illness  called  ptomaine  poisoning  is  caused  by  eating  cer- 
tain impure  or  partly  spoiled  foods.  Much  of  the  illness 
among  young  children  is  caused  by  impure  food.  Milk 
alone  is  responsible  for  the  death  of  many  infants  every 
summer.  In  fact  so  many  babies  have  died  as  the  result 
of  drinking  impure  milk  that  our  cities  have  made  special 
effort  to  instruct  mothers  as  to  its  dangers  by  making  it 
the  principal  feature  in  the  baby  saving  shows. 

The  health  of  an  entire  community  may  be  endangered 
by  impure  food.  Typhoid  fever  may  be  spread  through 
the  city  as  a  result  of  the  careless  handling  of  milk.  Meat 
from  diseased  cattle  may  result  in  disease  or  death  to 
those  who  use  it.     Dirt,  dust,  and  filth  from  exposure  of 


HEALTH 


51 


food  to  flies,  and  so  forth,  may  seriously  injure  the  health 
of  members  of  our  community.  Pure  food  is  so  necessary 
to  our  health,  and  impure  food  is  so  dangerous,  that  we 
cannot  leave  this  matter  in  the  hands  of  the  individual 
members  of  the  group.  It  demands  community  action 
and  co-operation  if  the  health  of  all  is  to  be  safeguarded. 

Local  Community  Action.  —  In  order  to  insure  the 
purity  and  cleanliness  of  the  food  supply,  we  find  in  every 
town  and  city  a  more  or  less  efficient  organization  to  safe- 
guard the  public  health.  First  of  all  we  require  that 
dealers  handling  certain  kinds  of  food  which  are  most 
likely  to  cause  trouble  be  licensed.  This  means  that 
they  must  secure  a  permit  from  the  local  health  authori- 
ties before  they  are  allowed  to  handle  this  food.  Such 
measures  allow  the  health  authorities  to  know  just  which 
dealers  are  handling  certain  foods,  for  example,  milk  and 
its  products,  and  to  keep  a  close  watch  on  the  sanitary 
conditions  of  their  stores  and  places  of  business.  In 
order  that  the  health  of  the  people  may  not  be  injured  by 
the  adulteration  of  foodstuffs,  certain  standards  are  set  up 
to  which  foods  such  as  milk  must  conform.  That  is,  the 
amount  of  cream  is  prescribed,  the  temperature  at  which 
it  must  be  kept  is  indicated,  and  so  forth.  To  see  that 
such  regulations  are  obeyed  we  a  find  number  of  inspectors 
whose  duty  it  is  to  see  that  the  city  ordinances  in  regard 
to  these  matters  are  complied  with. 

Meats  may  be  a  source  of  much  trouble  to  a  commu- 
nity, and  so  we  find  in  the  local  slaughterhouses  inspectors 
who  examine  the  meats,  and  pass  on  their  fitness  for  human 


52  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

consumption.  The  conditions  of  bakeries  and  other 
places  where  food  is  prepared  for  the  people  are  regularly 
inspected.  The  condition  of  health  of  workers  in  such 
places  is  determined  with  a  view  to  deciding  whether  or 
not  it  is  safe  to  have  them  handling  the  food  of  others. 

State  and  Federal  Action.  —  The  food  of  our  towns 
and  cities  comes  from  without.  The  cattle  which  supply 
the  milk  and  meat  may  be  in  a  distant  part  of  the  state 
or  even  the  nation.  The  canneries,  mills,  and  so  forth, 
where  other  food  is  prepared  may  also  be  located  at  a  dis- 
tance and  far  from  the  control  of  the  local  authorities. 
Of  course  it  would  be  possible  to  have  a  rigid  inspection 
made  of  all  foodstuffs  being  brought  into  a  city,  but 
this  would  be  a  difficult  and  expensive  proposition.  Since 
the  city  is  a  part  of  the  state  and  its  members  citizens  of 
the  state,  that  which  affects  the  welfare  of  the  city  affects 
the  welfare  of  the  state.  Just  as  it  is  to  the  interest  of 
the  local  community  to  protect  the  interests  of  its  citizens, 
so  it  is  to  the  interest  of  the  state  to  protect  the  interests 
of  its  citizens.  Hence  we  find  that  the  state  is  vitally 
interested  in  the  health  of  the  city.  By  statute,  and 
close  co-operation,  the  state  works  with  the  city  to  safe- 
guard its  health.  We  find  state  laws  regulating  condi- 
tions under  which  food  is  prepared,  and  so  forth,  and  state 
inspectors  who  see  that  the  wishes  of  the  state  group  in 
matters  pertaining  to  pure  food  are  carried  out.  Under 
the  direction  of  the  state  departments  of  health,  and  of 
agriculture,  we  find  a  corps  of  able  men  and  women  con- 
stantly on  guard  to  protect  us  from  impure  food. 


HEALTH  53 

The  national  government,  too,  is  by  no  means  lacking 
in  its  interest  and  care  for  the  public  health  through  pure 
food.  In  our  local  slaughter  and  packing  houses  we  find 
the  federal  inspectors.  Their  stamp  of  approval  on  good 
meats  will  be  familiar  to  those  of  us  who  have  visited  a 
butcher  shop.  An  act  of  Congress  known  as  the  Pure 
Food  and  Drug  Act  requires  that  the  label  on  packages 
containing  food  bear  a  truthful  statement  as  to  the  con- 
tents. The  legend  u  guaranteed  under  the  pure  food  and 
drug  act  "  does  not  mean,  as  some  people  believe,  that 
the  United  States  government  is  guaranteeing  the  quality 
of  the  contents.  It  is  a  guarantee  that  the  materials 
contained  are  correctly  stated  on  the  label.  If,  for 
example,  benzoate  of  soda  has  been  used  in  the  preserving 
of  catsup,  the  label  on  the  bottle  must  state  this  fact  to- 
gether with  the  percentage  used.  All  over  the  country 
federal  inspectors  keep  careful  watch  for  violation  of  such 
laws.  The  Bureau  of  Chemistry  and  the  Bureau  of  Ani- 
mal Industry  under  the  Department  of  Agriculture  at 
Washington  are  waging  constant  warfare  for  the  protection 
and  the  preservation  of  the  public  health  through  pure  food. 

Individual  Responsibility.  —  No  amount  of  public 
watchfulness  can  replace  the  care  which  each  one  must 
exercise  in  regard  to  the  food  he  eats.  No  amount  of 
inspection  will  probably  ever  be  able  to  eliminate  the  dealer 
who  is  careless  in  handling  foods.  It  is  a  service  which 
each  one  of  us  can  render  to  ourselves  and  to  the  com- 
munity by  refusing  to  patronize  such  places.  If  we  in- 
sist that  the  common  decencies  be  observed  by  our  shop- 


54  THE  ELEMENTS  OF   COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

keepers,  and  refuse  to  deal  where  food  is  indiscriminately 
handled,  or  exposed  to  dust  and  flies,  the  dealers  them- 
selves will  soon  adopt  cleaner  and  more  sanitary  ways. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION 

i.  Describe  some  of  the  methods  of  handling  the  food  supply  of 
your  community  which  you  consider  unsanitary. 

2.  Secure  from  your  local  Bureau  of  Health  the  regulations  govern- 
ing the  handling  and  sale  of  milk. 

3.  Describe  the  work  of  a  milk  inspector. 

4.  Is  the  dealer  or  other  person  who  waters  or  otherwise  tampers 
with  the  milk  responsible  for  the  illness  or  loss  of  life  of  the  babies  who 
may  be  injured  by  its  use  ? 

5.  What  advantage  is  there  in  requiring  that  milk  be  served  in 
bottles  rather  than  from  cans  ?  What  are  some  of  the  dangers  attend- 
ant on  the  use  of  the  milk  bottle? 

6.  What  are  some  of  the  disadvantages  of  having  a  number  of 
small  slaughterhouses? 

7.  What  advantage  would  it  be  to  a  community  to  have  one  large 
abattoir  where  all  the  city  meat  would  be  slaughtered? 

8.  What  foods  are  sold  in  your  community  for  the  sale  of  which  a 
license  is  required? 

9.  What  are  the  dangers  of  a  cellar  bakery? 

10.  What  are  some  of  the  services  rendered  by  the  Bureau  of  Animal 
Industry?    the  Bureau  of  Chemistry? 

CLEANLINESS 

Cleanliness  has  been  said  to  be  next  to  godliness.  How- 
ever true  this  may  be  we  know  that  there  is  a  close  rela- 
tionship between  cleanliness  and  good  citizenship.  The 
good  citizen  is  interested  first  in  the  cleanliness  of  his  per- 
son and  immediate  surroundings,  and  then  in  the  cleanli- 
ness and  surroundings  of  his  fellows.  He  knows  that  when 
a  member  of  the  community  is  not  interested  in  his  own 


HEALTH  55 

personal  cleanliness  he  will  not  be  interested  in  that  of  the 
community  in  which  he  lives.  Carelessness  in  this  re- 
spect is  one  of  the  first  steps  away  from  that  commonness 
of  interest  which  makes  for  the  very  existence  of  the  com- 
munity itself. 

Cleanliness  is  a  very  simple  matter  if  we  are  interested 
enough  to  make  the  effort.  The  community  in  which  we 
live  has  surrounded  us  with  everything  which  we  need  to 
be  clean.  We  have  seen  how  a  plentiful  supply  of  pure 
water  is  piped  into  our  homes,  not  only  that  we  might 
have  it  for  drinking  and  cooking,  but  also  for  cleansing 
the  body  and  its  surroundings.  If  we  look  out  of  the  win- 
dow of  our  classroom  we  may  see  the  street  cleaners  at 
work  aiding  us  so  that  we  may  have  clean  streets  along 
which  to  walk.  We  have  seen  the  local  community  at 
work  abating  smoke  and  other  nuisances  which  make 
for  an  uncleanly  community.  If  we  stop  to  think  about 
it  we  shall  see  that  there  is  very  little  excuse  for  uncleanli- 
ness. 

Dirt  is  an  enemy  to  health.  Where  people  are  careless 
in  regard  to  the  cleanliness  of  their  persons  and  surround- 
ings, we  are  much  more  likely  to  find  disease.  Most  dis- 
ease germs  grow  best  in  dark,  damp,  dirty  places.  Fresh 
air,  sunlight,  and  pure  water  are  enemies  of  disease.  Dis- 
ease carriers  such  as  flies  and  mosquitoes  originate  in 
filth  or  in  pools  of  stagnant  water.  The  community  can- 
not afford  to  permit  dirt  and  filth  to  exist  if  it  is  to  safe- 
guard its  health. 

There  are  some  forms  of  dirt  which  in  themselves  may 
not  be  sources  of  disease,  but  which  we  cannot  afford  to 


56 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF   COMMUNITY  WELFARE 


permit  to  exist  because  of  the  effect  which  they  have  upon 
the  appearance  of  the  community,  and  the  consequent 
effect  upon  the  lives  of  the  people.  Some  people  who 
are  particular  in  regard  to  their  personal  surroundings 
are  careless  when  the  appearance  of  the  neighborhood  is 
concerned.  They  carelessly  throw  into  the  street  pieces 
of    paper    and    other    articles   which     are  responsible   for 


MSKiiw 


.10!, \  THE 


R  Aa\: 

wit  Srnx: 

a.s.c 


USE  THIS  CAR 


IJ.S.K. 


Rubbish  Cans  for  Paper  and  Other  Waste 


much  of  the  dirty  appearance  of  our  highways.  A  good 
citizen  will  be  as  careful  of  the  streets  of  his  city  as  of  the 
rooms  in  his  home. 

Sources  of  Dirt.  —  It  is  a  rather  distressing  fact  that 
most  of  our  American  communities  are  careless  in  regard 
to  the  condition  of  their  streets.  It  is  not  because  we 
want  dirty  streets,  but  because  so  many  of  us  fail  to  recog- 
nize our  own  responsibility  for  the  conditions  which  exist. 
Men  and  women  who  are  otherwise  perfectly  good  citizens 
will  thoughtlessly  drop  into  the  streets  torn  pieces  of  an 


HEALTH  57 

envelope,  accept  a  circular  which  is  being  distributed  ^and 
then  carelessly  throw  it  away.  Boxes  containing  waste 
paper  are  placed  out  to  wait  for  the  waste  collector  only 
to  have  a  part  of  the  contents  blown  all  over  the  street 
by  the  wind.  Storekeepers  sweep  the  dirt  from  their 
shops  into  the  street.  Boys  and  girls  drop  candy  bags, 
torn  scraps  of  school  papers,  fruit  peelings,  here  and  there. 
You  will  be  able  to  add  to  this  list  to  considerable  length. 
It  is  little  wonder  that  the  streets  of  our  towns  and  cities 
are  often  unpresentable. 

And  all  this  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  community  is 
paying  out  no  small  amount  of  its  good  money  to  keep 
these  very  streets  clean.  "  But,"  some  one  may  remark, 
"  that  is  what  the  street  cleaners  are  for."  Can  you  tell 
what  is  wrong  with  such  a  suggestion  ? 

Street  Cleaning.  —  The  problem  of  keeping  our  city 
streets  clean  is  a  very  big  one,  involving  the  expenditure 
of  millions  of  dollars  every  year,  and  the  employment  of  a 
small  army  of  laborers.  The  methods  which  are  used  will 
vary  in  the  different  communities  according  to  the  pro- 
gressiveness  of  the  community.  Every  conceivable  method 
will  be  found,  from  the  single  cleaner  with  barrow  and 
broom  to  the  modern  power-driven  street  cleaning  ma- 
chine. The  type  of  machine  used  will  vary,  too,  with  the, 
nature  of  the  street  paving,  one  type  being  used  on  the 
smoothly  paved  streets,  and  another  on  the  rough  granite 
block-paved   highways. 

It  will  be  interesting  if  various  members  of  the  class 
write    to    firms   which    manufacture    street    cleaning    ma- 


$&  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

chinery  and  ask  for  catalogues  showing  pictures  and  giving 
descriptions  of  the  different  machines. 

It  has  been  found  that  the  power-driven  machines,  when 
they  can  be  used,  do  the  work  more  quickly  and  more 
economically  than  the  older  horse-drawn  machines.  The 
nature  of  the  paving  determines  the  type  of  cleaning  de- 
vice which  may  be  used.  If  the  street  is  paved  with  rough 
granite  blocks  it  is  necessary  to  use  the  machine  broom. 
If  it  is  smoothly  paved  as  with  asphalt  the  squeegee  ma- 
chine or  the  high  pressure  motor  flusher  may  be  used. 
A  new  type  of  machine  not  only  sweeps  up  the  dirt  but 
also  loads  it  into  wagons  to  be  carted  away,  thus  com- 
pleting the  entire  process  in  one  operation. 

Since  street  cleaning  is  a  matter  requiring  constant  at- 
tention and  is  a  source  of  considerable  expense  to  the  com- 
munity, the  relation  of  the  nature  of  the  street  paving 
to  it  should  be  considered.  Since  the  smooth-paved  street, 
whether  of  asphalt,  wood  blocks,  or  cemented  bricks, 
may  be  cleaned  quickly  and  economically*  by  means  of 
motor-driven  machines,  it  would  seem  to  be  wise  to  see  that 
wherever  possible  these  forms  of  paving  be  adopted. 

Garbage  Disposal.  —  Among  the  enemies  of  the  public 
health  must  be  listed  the  garbage  can.  Not  because  it 
should  necessarily  be  an  enemy,  but  because  of  the  care- 
lessness of  members  of  the  community  who  are  responsible 
for  its  condition.  Even  the  tightly  covered  iron  can,  un- 
less it  is  kept  scrupulously  clean,  in  hot  weather  may  be- 
come a  nuisance.  But  the  leaking,  uncovered  bucket 
is  a  certain  menace  to  health.     Not  only  are  the  odors 


HEALTH  59 

which  come  from  it  objectionable,  but  it  is  also  a  breeding 
place  for  flies.  These  multiply  with  great  rapidity  and 
soon  make  their  way  from  the  garbage  can  to  the  food- 
stuffs on  our  tables.  Even  covered  cans  which  have  been 
allowed  to  stand  out  overnight  are  likely  to  have  their 
contents  spilled  over  the  ground  by  some  prowling  cat 
or  dog.  Indeed  the  garbage  can  may  be  a  source  of  dirt, 
foul  odor,  and  disease. 

The  problem  of  disposing  of  the  garbage  is  an  important 
one  in  every  community.  A  simple  and  profitable  method 
in  country  districts  is  to  feed  it  to  the  pigs.  In  fact  in 
some  small  cities  this  is  still  done.  The  keeping  of  pigs 
by  individual  members  of  the  community  within  the  city 
limits,  however,  is  generally  prohibited  because  of  the  ob- 
jectionable odors  and  the  fact  that  pigpens  are  breeding 
places  for  flies.  The  garbage,  on  the  other  hand,  may  be 
burned  or  thrown  into  a  near-by  stream.  The  objections 
to  these  last  methods  are  quite  evident.  In  more  closely 
settled  communities  some  other  method  of  disposal  must 
be  adopted. 

Incineration. — There  are  two  principal  methods  of 
getting  rid  of  garbage.  One  method  is  by  incineration, 
that  is,  burning.  The  other  is  by  reduction.  The  in- 
cineration or  burning  of  garbage  as  it  is  carried  on  in  a 
town  or  city  is  quite  different  from  that  which  would  be 
employed  by  the  individual  citizen  who  attempted  to 
burn  his  garbage.  When  garbage  is  burned,  unless  the 
fire  is  sufficiently  hot  to  consume  all  smoke  and  gas,  a  most 
objectionable  odor  is  thrown  off  which  makes  living  near  by 


60  THE   ELEMENTS  OF   COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

very  uncomfortable.  Every  particle  of  garbage  must 
be  completely  destroyed.  This  requires  a  very  hot  fire 
because  of  the  large  amount  of  water  which  is  contained 
in  garbage,  and  is  quite  expensive  on  account  of  the  amount 
of  coal  or  other  fuel  which  must  be  used.  This  difficulty 
is  overcome,  however,  by  having  the  garbage  mixed  with 
ashes  and  then  burning  both  together  under  a  forced  draft. 
There  is  enough  unburned  coal  in  the  ashes  and  fuel  in  the 
garbage  to  burn  completely  all  the  garbage  when  handled  in 
this  manner.  This  method  is  not  so  expensive  in  that  the 
cost  of  operating  the  plant  may  be  reduced  by  making  use 
of  the  great  heat  produced  to  generate  steam  with  which 
to  make  electricity  for  operating  the  plant  itself,  and  even 
to  supply  light  and  power  to  points  outside  the  plant. 

Reduction.  —  There  are  some  people,  however,  who  claim 
that  the  garbage  contains  too  much  valuable  material  to 
permit  of  its  being  destroyed.  In  order  to  save  the  fats 
and  other  products  which  the  garbage  contains  a  process 
is  resorted  to  which  is  called  reduction.  In  this  process 
the  garbage  is  cooked  by  means  of  steam  for  a  number 
of  hours  until  it  is  boiled  down  to  a  paste.  It  is  then 
subjected  to  pressure  which  separates  out  the  grease  and 
liquid.  This  grease  is  then  refined.  It  is  the  most  valu- 
able part  of  the  garbage.  It  is  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  soap,  candles,  and  so  forth.  The  remaining  material 
is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  fertilizer. 

Waste  and  Ashes.  —  Ashes  and  rubbish  are  the  cleanest 
of  the  waste  products  of  a  community,  and  yet  they  are 
responsible  for  a  great  deal  of  the  dirt  in  the  streets.     This 


HEALTH 


61 


is  due  to  the  carelessness  with  which  they  are  handled 
by  housekeeper  and  collector.  The  resulting  dirt  from 
the  improper  disposal  of  ashes  and  rubbish  has  led  most 
communities  to  make  rather  strict  regulations  as  to  just 
how  such  materials  should  be  disposed  of.     But  in  spite  of 


^NJfvJpk. 

J  at     :  ,i> 

*v\l 

.  M\K 

PA.-:  All 

- 

tffi\ T^ 

'■-"            :    \ 

-r-:'?!  ^ 

^Tfi 

■!._    «,*        "        •"                  Pj| 

Ash  Machine 
Used  to  unload  scows  and  load  cars  with  ashes,  which  later  are  dumped  to  fill  in  land,  etc. 

these  our  streets  still  continue  to  be  littered  every  ash  and 
rubbish  day.  No  amount  of  law  will  ever  be  able  to  over- 
come the  carelessness  of  the  individual  citizen.  When 
we  really  want  clean  streets  and  are  willing  to  take  the 
proper  precautions  with  our  waste  and  rubbish  and  other 
sources  of  dirt,  our  streets  will  be  clean.  If  each  house- 
keeper saw  to  it  that  the  cans  or  boxes  containing  the  ashes 
did    not   leak,    that   they   were   not   overfilled,   and   that 


62  THE   ELEMENTS  OF  COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

waste  papers  and  so  forth  were  tied  into  bundles  so  that 
the  wind  could  not  blow  them  away,  much  of  the  unneces- 
sary dirt  in  our  streets  would  be  eliminated.  A  commu- 
nity which  was  careful  in  regard  to  the  manner  in  which 
it  placed  its  waste  and  rubbish  on  the  street  would  soon 
see  that  the  collectors  obeyed  the  laws  in  regard  to  keep- 
ing their  wagons  covered  and  that  they  exercised  proper 
care  in  their  collections. 

Municipal  vs.  Private  Service.  —  There  are  two  ways 
in  which  a  community  may  look  after  these  matters  per- 
taining to  its  cleanliness.  It  may  either  take  charge  of 
the  work  and  do  it  for  itself,  or  it  may  hire  some  one  to 
do  the  work  for  it.  .  Both  of  these  methods  are  to  be  found 
in  our  country.  There  are  advantages  and  disadvantages 
on  each  side.  The  matters  about  which  we  have  been 
reading  are  not  so  simple  as  they  might  at  first  seem.  To 
do  such  work  efficiently  and  cheaply  requires  expert  knowl- 
edge. The  supervision  and  planning  of  this  work  is  the 
job  of  well-trained  experts.  When  the  work  is  done  by 
the  community  there  is  the  danger  that  it  will  be  placed 
in  the  hands  of  men  who  are  politicians  rather  than  techni- 
cal experts.  On  the  other  hand  there  is  the  possibility  of 
political  influence  entering  into  the  awarding  of  contracts 
to  private  organizations.  What  is  needed  is  the  develop- 
ment of  citizens  who  will  be  willing  to  place  the  welfare 
of  the  community  above  their  own  personal  interests. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY  AND    DISCUSSION 

i.  Draw  a  diagram  of  what  you  would  consider  a  satisfactory  garbage 
can.     Of  what  material  would  you  have  it  made? 


HEALTH  63 

2.  How  do  you  dispose  of  the  garbage  at  your  home? 

3.  How  is  the  garbage  collected?    By  whom?    What  kinds  of 
wagons  are  used? 

4.  What  system  of  final  disposal  of  garbage  is  used  by  your  com- 
munity ? 

5.  Write  a  brief  argument  in  favor  of  the  "  reduction  "  plan ;    of 
the  "  incinerating  "  plan. 

6.  What  are  the  regulations  governing  the  disposal  of  waste  and 
ashes  in  your  community? 

7.  Whose  duty  is  it  to  see  that  these  laws  are  enforced  ? 


THE   PREVENTION   OF   CONTAGION 

In  the  fall  of  191 8  the  country  was  swept  with  a  terrible 
disease,  which  cost  the  lives  of  thousands  of  our  citizens. 
In  army  camp,  city  and  village  alike  it  did  its  deadly  work, 
while  the  medical  profession,  ignorant  of  a  cure  for  the  mal- 
ady, seemed  to  be  almost  helpless.  It  had  been  many  years 
since  such  an  epidemic  had  swept  the  country.  The  de- 
struction, worked  by  influenza  and  the  suffering  and  dis- 
tress which  it  caused  may  be  taken  as  an  illustration  of  the 
horrors  which  are  attendant  on  unchecked  contagious 
diseases.  There  was  a  time  when  diseases  such  as  small- 
pox and  yellow  fever  would  spread  at  almost  regular  inter- 
vals through  whole  sections  of  the  country  and  claim  many 
victims.  Fortunately,  as  a  result  of  the  wonderful  dis- 
coveries which  have  been  made  in  recent  years  by  our 
physicians,  such  diseases  have  been  either  entirely  wiped 
out  or  when  they  do  occur  are  held  in  such  close  check 
that  they  do  comparatively  little  damage.  Let  us  look 
at  some  of  the  ways  by  which  the  community  protects 
itself  from  contagious  diseases. 


64  THE  ELEMENTS   OF   COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

School '  Medical  Inspection.  —  There  are  many  conta- 
gious diseases  which  we  find  especially  among  young 
children.  There  was  a  time  when  parents  believed  that 
every  child  had  to  have  at  some  time  or  other  such  dis- 
eases as  the  measles  and  chicken-pox.  Little  or  no  care 
was  taken  to  prevent  the  spread  of  these  diseases.  In 
some  cases  when  one  child  in  the  family  was  taken  with 
the  measles  the  other  children  were  deliberately  exposed 
so  that  they  would  take  the  disease  and  have  it  over.  We 
know  to-day  that  this  was  very  foolish.  Children  do  not 
have  to  have  the  so-called  children's  diseases.  In  some 
instances  such  diseases  result  in  loss  of  life  or  some  per- 
manent injury  to  the  child. 

In  our  schools,  where  large  numbers  of  children  are 
brought  together,  there  is  a  terrible  chance  for  the  spread 
of  contagious  disease  unless  care  is  exercised.  To  safe- 
guard the  health  of  our  boys  and  girls  every  teacher  is 
trained  in  detecting  the  more  important  contagious  dis- 
eases. The  teacher  and  the  principal  represent  the  first 
line  of  defense.  When  a  case  is  discovered  which  seems 
to  be  suspicious  the  child  is  sent  to  the  school  medical 
inspector  or  to  the  nurse.  If  it  should  have  a  contagious 
disease  it  is  immediately  excluded  from  the  school,  and 
at  the  same  time  a  report  is  made  to  the  local  health 
authorities  in  order  that  the  other  families  in  the  neighbor- 
hood may  be  protected. 

Vaccination.  —  Being  vaccinated  is  an  experience  which 
most  of  us  have  had,  for  we  would  not  have  been  admitted 
to  school   without  vaccination.     Formerly    smallpox    was 


HEALTH  65 

one  of  the  most  feared  diseases.  At  intervals  it  would 
break  out  and  sweep  across  the  country  taking  a  heavy 
toll  of  life.  The  discovery  and  widespread  use  of  vaccina- 
tion against  this  disease  has,  however,  resulted  in  almost 
complete  elimination  of  this  scourge.  So  effective  has 
the  application  of  vaccination  been  in  preventing  small- 
pox in  civilized  communities  that  vaccination  of  school 
children,  and  of  persons  who  have  been  exposed  to  the 
disease  by  being  in  the  neighborhood  when  a  case  is  dis- 
covered, has  been  made  compulsory.  Other  forms  of 
vaccination  which  have  been  introduced  lately  are  those 
for  protection  from  typhoid  fever  and  influenza.  As  we 
have  seen,  the  compulsory  inoculation  of  all  soldiers  with 
typhoid  vaccine  resulted  in  the  practical  elimination  of 
typhoid  fever  from  the  American  army  in  the  recent  war. 
In  a  matter  which  so  closely  affects  the  life  and  welfare  of 
the  entire  community  the  good  citizen  willingly  submits  to 
such  preventive  measures  as  will  make  for  the  welfare  of 
the  group. 

Quarantine.  —  We  have  all  seen  the  quarantine  signs 
which  are  placed  on  houses  in  which  there  is  some  con- 
tagious disease.  Have  you  ever  read  one  of  them  ?  At 
the  top  there  is  usually  printed  the  name  of  the  disease. 
Beneath  this  is  a  warning  as  to  the  danger  of  the  disease 
and  such  regulations  as  the  health  officers  of  the  commu- 
nity see  fit  to  enforce.  It  may  contain  in  the  case  of  cer- 
tain diseases  a  statement  forbidding  any  one  to  enter  or 
leave  the  house  for  a  certain  period.  In  case  of  a  disease 
such  as  smallpox  we  usually  find  an  officer  at  the  front  of 


66  THE   ELEMENTS   OF   COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

the  house  and  another  at  the  rear  to  see  that  the  quaran- 
tine is  enforced. 

It  is  not  a  pleasant  thing  to  be  quarantined  and  not 
to  be  permitted  to  leave  our  own  homes  when  we  please. 
But  good  citizens  are  willing  to  obey  the  law  because  they 
know  that  it  is  for  the  good  of  all  the  people  of  the  com- 
munity. The  health  officer  who  placed  the  sign  on  the 
door,  and  the  policemen  who  are  there  to  see  that  the 
law  is  observed,  are  merely  performing  their  duty  which 
they  are  required  by  the  rest  of  the  community  to  do. 
How  angry  we  should  be  if  someone  were  to  visit  us  in  our 
home  and  after  they  had  left  we  were  to  find  that  they 
had  just  come  from  a  house  in  which  there  was  a  case  of 
smallpox  !  And  we  should  be  even  more  provoked  if  as  a 
result  of  their  carelessness  some  member  of  our  family  were 
to  contract  the  dread  disease.  When  we  think  of  it  in 
this  light  we  see  that  quarantine  is  meant  to  save  us  from 
unnecessary  exposure  to  the  dangers  of  disease. 

The  physician  whom  we  call  in,  in  case  of  illness,  is  re- 
quired by  law  to  report  to  the  health  authorities  of  the 
community  any  case  of  contagious  disease  which  he  dis- 
covers. If  he  should  fail  to  do  this  he  is  likely  to  be  pun- 
ished very  severely.  The  health  authorities  of  the  com- 
munity, the  members  of  the  Department  of  Health  of  the 
city,  are  merely  the  men  and  women  whom  the  people  of 
the  community  have  selected  to  protect  the  public  health. 

If  we  were  to  visit  the  headquarters  of  the  health  au- 
thorities we  should  find  that  they  keep  a  very  close  watch 
over  the  health  of  the  community.  On  large  maps  of 
the  city  there  will  be  indicated  by  means  of  colored  dots 


HEALTH  67 

every  case  of  contagious  disease  which  exists  in  the  city. 
A  careful  study  of  these  maps  will  sometimes  lead  to  the 
discovery  of  the  source  of  a  certain  disease.  This  makes 
it  possible  for  them  to  go  right  to  the  source  when  they 
take  up  their  fight  against  any  disease. 

But  not  only  does  the  community  quarantine  the  homes 
of  individual  members  within  the  community  but  when 
necessary  establishes  quarantine  over  sections  of  the  com- 
munity or  even  over  the  entire  city  or  town.  To  pro- 
tect the  public  health  people  from  other  communities  may 
be  forbidden  to  enter  our  community  if  we  are  fearful 
lest  some  contagious  disease  from  which  this  other  group 
is  suffering  may  be  brought  to  us.  Such  a  quarantine 
was  established  during  a  recent  epidemic  of  infantile 
paralysis. 

Since  the  spread  of  disease  concerns  every  one  in  the 
country  all  three  communities,  local,  state,  and  national, 
are  deeply  interested  and  co-operate  closely.  When  the 
local  authorities  are  unable  to  cope  satisfactorily  with  a 
given  disease,  the  state  authorities  come  to  their  aid.  In 
like  manner  the  national  authorities  have  the  right  to 
step  in  whenever  the  welfare  of  the  local  or  state  com- 
munities seems  to  warrant  it.  The  local  authorities  are 
required  to  report  to  the  state  all  cases  of  contagious  dis- 
ease and  the  number  of  deaths  from  each.  Each  week 
the  state  is  required  to  report  this  information  to  the  public 
health  service  of  the  national  government. 

Federal  Quarantine. — While  we  are  busy  guarding 
ourselves  against  diseases  which  arise  within,  the  national 


68 


THE   ELEMENTS   OF   COMMUNITY  WELFARE 


community  is  guarding  us  from  disease  which  might  be 
brought  to  us  from  without.  Constantly  on  guard, 
through  every  minute  of  the  day  and  night,  stand  the 
quarantine  officers  who  represent  the  national  govern- 
ment. Every  vessel  entering  our  country  from  a  foreign 
port  is  boarded  by  a  quarantine  officer.  He  does  not 
allow  the  ship  to  dock  until  it  can  show  a  clean  bill  of 


U.  S.  Immigration  Station,  Ellis  Island 
Here  all  immigrants  must  present  themselves  for  their  first  inspection  under  the  law 

health.  Every  alien  who  enters  the  United  States  must 
undergo  a  medical  examination.  In  this  way  many 
dangerous  diseases  which  exist  in  foreign  lands  are  kept 
out  of  our  country. 

It  has  been  estimated  that  there  are  probably  a  million 
preventable  deaths  in  the  United  States  each  year.  This 
means  a  tremendous  loss  to  the  country.  It  will  be  seen 
that  the  problem  of  health  is  one  of  the  most  important 
even  for  the  national  government.     So  it  is  that  all  over 


HEALTH  69 

the  country  the  national  government  is  constantly  active 
in  combating  disease  and  studying  its  causes.  Wonderful 
strides  have  been  made  in  fighting  such  diseases  as  yellow 
fever,  bubonic  plague,  and  pestilence.  The  national  gov- 
ernment has  become  one  of  the  chief  enemies  of  the  fly  and 
the  mosquito. 

Education.  —  The  public  school  and  other  educational 
institutions  work  hand  in  hand  with  the  governmental 
agencies  to  promote  health.  A  very  important  subject  in 
every  classroom  is  hygiene.  It  is  believed  to  be  so  im- 
portant that  instruction  in  this  subject  is  in  most  places 
required  by  law.  In  our  cities  we  find  public  lectures  on 
health  matters.  In  the  more  advanced  communities  help 
is  given  directly  in  the  home.  The  public  nurse  visits  from 
house  to  house  in  the  sections  where  she  is  most  needed, 
helping  the  people  with  their  health  problems.  Then  there 
are  the  health  exhibits  which  are  held  from  time  to  time 
covering  such  subjects  as  milk,  tuberculosis,  and  baby- 
saving. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  FURTHER   STUDY  AND    DISCUSSION 

1.  Secure  from  your  school  medical  inspector  a  copy  of  one  of  the 
exclusion  forms  which  he  uses.  Under  what  conditions  is  this  form 
used  in  your  school? 

2.  How  does  your  teacher  know  when  to  exclude  the  brothers  and 
sisters  of  a  child  in  another  class  who  is  suffering  with  a  contagious 
disease  ? 

3.  Find  out  from  some  discharged  soldier  whom  you  know  all  you 
can  about  vaccination  against  typhoid  fever.  Why  was  this  considered 
so  important  in  the  Army  as  to  be  made  compulsory  ? 

4.  In  what  contagious  diseases  does  your  community  establish 
quarantine  ?    How  is  it  carried  out  ? 


70  THE   ELEMENTS   OF  COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

5.  Write  to  the  Bureau  of  Entomology  at  Washington  and  request 
that  pamphlets  on  the  fly  and  mosquito  be  sent  to  you. 

6.  Read  the  story  of  the  heroic  fight  waged  against  the  mosquito 
and  yellow  fever  by  the  Medical  Corps  of  the  United  States  Army. 

THE  REGULATION   OF  WORKING  HOURS  AND 
CONDITIONS 

In  School.  —  We  have  seen  that  every  boy  and  girl 
is  not  only  a  citizen  but  a  citizen  at  work.  Most  of  us 
spend  at  least  three  or  four  hours  every  day  in  our  class- 
rooms. We  are  engaged  in  a  most  valuable  occupation 
and  it  is  necessary  both  for  ourselves  and  the  community 
that  the  conditions  under  which  we  work  be  such  as  will 
not  result  in  injury  to  our  health.  A  sound  mind  in  a 
sound  body  is  a  good  motto  to  have  before  us.  Unless 
we  have  health  our  education  will  be  of  little  use  to  us 
in  our  after  life. 

If  we  look  around  our  classroom  we  shall  see  certain 
measures  which  have  been  taken  to  guard  our  health. 
The  room  is  well  ventilated.  The  desks  are  so  arranged 
that  the  light  falls  from  over  our  left  shoulder.  If  we 
are  so  fortunate  as  to  be  in  a  modern,  well-equipped  school, 
we  are  sitting  in  adjustable  desks  which  are  comfortable, 
and  which  may  be  adapted  to  the  various  activities  of 
reading,  writing,  drawing,  and  so  forth.  The  signal  on 
the  classroom  bell  indicates  that  the  school  doctor  or  the 
school  nurse  is  in  the  building  and  ready  to  see  any  one 
who  is  in  need  of  medical  attention.  We  may  even  have 
a  dental  dispensary  where  a  dentist  may  be  found  at  cer- 
tain hours  ready  to  take  care  of  our  teeth.  The  com- 
munity has  employed  experts,  who,  under  the  direction 


HEALTH  71 

of  the  school  authorities,  are  carrying  out  the  laws  made 
by  the  local  Board  of  Education  or  the  State  through  the 
instructions  of  the  City,  County,  or  State  Superintendent 
of  Schools. 

Child  Labor.  —  If  we  decide  that  we  would  like  to  leave 
school  and  go  to  work  we  find  that  there  are  certain  re- 
quirements which  we  must  fulfil  before  we  may  do  so. 
Laws  have  been  passed  by  the  state  legislature  which 
prescribe  a  certain  age  below  which  no  boy  or  girl  may  be 
employed.  This  is  partly  in  order  to  insure  that  every  one 
shall  receive  at  least  a  certain  amount  of  education,  but 
also  in  order  that  the  health  of  the  boys  and  girls  may 
be  protected.  It  has  been  found  that  the  employment  of 
young  children  during  the  long  hours  of  the  working  day  is 
injurious  to  their  health.  There  was  a  time,  before  the 
people  of  the  community  realized  how  harmful  it  was, 
when  very  young  children  were  employed  and  worked  in 
mills  and  factories  from  early  morning  until  late  at  night. 
Deprived  of  their  right  to  play  in  the  fresh  outdoor  air  and 
sunshine,  such  children  after  a  time  often  sickened  and 
died.  Others  became  so  weakened  that  their  future  use- 
fulness to  themselves  and  the  community  was  impaired, 
and  they  became  subject  to  disease. 

The  evils  of  the  employment  of  young  children  are 
clearly  recognized  to-day.  As  the  result  of  the  efforts  of 
private  organizations  such  as  the  child  labor  associations, 
our  state  legislatures  have  passed  laws  forbidding  the  em- 
ployment of  children  below  a  certain  age,  usually  fourteen 
years,  in  any  form  of  employment.     A  higher  age  limit 


72  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

is  often  found  governing  employment  in  certain  industries 
which  are  especially  harmful  to  children.  A  medical 
examination  must  show  physical  fitness  to  enter  the  pro- 
posed employment.  Employment  in  certain  dangerous 
occupations  is  forbidden.  The  states  employ  many  in- 
spectors whose  business  it  is  to  see  that  the  state  laws 
governing  the  employment  of  children  are  obeyed. 

In  order  to  assist  the  states  in  the  enforcement  of  the 
child  labor  laws,  Congress  passed  in  191 6  a  law  forbidding 
interstate  commerce  in  articles  in  the  manufacture  of 
which  child  labor  was  engaged. 

Dangerous  Trades.  —  If  you  have  ever  seen  a  work- 
man cleaning  stone  with  a  sand  blast,  you  will  have  noticed 
that  his  face  was  protected  from  the  flying  sand  by  a  mask. 
To  breathe  this  sand  and  cut  stone  is  very  injurious  to 
the  lungs  and  in  a  short  while  would  probably  result  in  the 
worker  developing  tuberculosis.  There  are  many  occu- 
pations which  are  injurious  to  one's  health.  Trades  re- 
quiring the  handling  of  arsenic,  mercury,  lead,  phosphorus, 
and  other  poisonous  materials  are  especially  dangerous. 
As  these  trades  are  necessary  some  one  must  do  the  work. 
From  such  employment  it  is  only  right  that  boys  and 
girls  should  be  excluded.  The  older  folk  who  are  engaged 
in  such  work  must  be  protected  as  far  as  possible.  Laws 
have  been  passed  requiring  the  wearing  of  masks,  the 
installation  of  hoods  and  fans  for  ventilating,  and  other 
protective  measures.  The  state  employs  inspectors  to  see 
that  these  laws  concerning  labor  conditions  are  enforced. 

Workers  in  dangerous  trades  often  become  careless  and 


HEALTH  73 

disregard  the  measures  which  have  been  taken  for  their 
protection.  Unless  the  individual  co-operates  with  the 
law,  which  has  been  made  for  his  safety,  the  very  pur- 
pose of  the  law  is  defeated. 

An  evidence  that  the  national  government  is  interested 
in  the  health  of  the  worker  may  be  seen  if  we  examine 
the  label  on  a  box  of  matches.  The  people  who  were  en- 
gaged in  the  manufacture  of  matches  were  formerly  sub- 
ject to  a  disease  which  was  the  result  of  phosphorus  poi- 
soning. In  order  to  protect  them  Congress  has  passed  a 
law  to  which  we  find  reference  on  the  match  box. 

Sweatshop  Labor.  —  In  certain  lines  of  industry  it 
is  a  practice  to  have  part  of  the  operation  done  outside 
the  shop.  We  find  quite  a  little  of  this  in  the  clothing 
trades,  where  the  work  is  let  out  to  people  who  carry  the 
goods  to  their  homes,  where  the  buttonholes  are  worked 
and  other  processes  done.  Work  of  this  kind  permits 
mothers  who  have  no  other  means  of  support  to  earn 
money  right  in  their  own  homes.  There  are  many  dangers, 
however,  attendant  on  this  system.  Clothing  may  be 
carried  into  homes  in  which  there  is  disease  or  where  the 
sanitary  conditions  are  unsafe.  Frequently  all  the  mem- 
bers of  the  family  who  are  at  all  able  are  required  to  work 
on  the  garments  so  that  more  money  may  be  earned.  Then, 
too,  the  worker's  health  is  often  injured  by  working  ex- 
cessively long  hours  with  poor  lighting  and  ventilating 
facilities.  Such  work  is  not  readily  inspected  by  the 
tqfci&ry  inspectors  and  is  therefore  largely  out  of  their 
control.     It  affords  a  means  by  which  employers  of  labor 


74  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

imposing  on  the  ignorance  or  impoverished  conditions 
of  the  workers  are  able  to  violate  practically  all  the  laws 
which  have  been  made  to  safeguard  the  workers'  health. 
An  effort  has  been  made  in  some  places  to  get  at  this 
evil  by  specifying,  by  law,  the  size  and  ventilating  con- 
ditions of  every  room  in  which  such  labor  is  performed. 
Where  such  laws  are  actually  enforced  they  help  to  remedy 
the  conditions.  Among  the  private  organizations  which 
are  fighting  the  sweatshop  evil  is  the  National  Consumers' 
League.  This  organization  endeavors  to  educate  the 
people  as  to  the  evils  of  sweatshop  labor,  secure  legisla- 
tion against  it,  and  by  means  of  publicity  bring  before 
the  people  articles  which  are  not  made  in  sweatshops. 
If  the  people  were  to  refuse  to  purchase  articles  made 
under  sweatshop  conditions,  the  evil  would  be  quickly 
ended. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  FURTHER   STUDY  AND   DISCUSSION 

i .  How  do  the  following  school  activities  help  safeguard  the  health  of 
the  boys  and  girls  ?  physical  exercise ;  the  recess ;  the  school  lunch ; 
school  athletics. 

2.  What  are  the  state  laws  governing  the  employment  of  minors  in 
your  state  ? 

3.  Write  an  argument  in  favor  of  permitting  the  employment  of  boys 
over  twelve  years  of  age  as  newsboys.  What  are  some  of  the  dangers 
of  this  kind  of  work  ? 

4.  Which  is  the  more  healthful,  an  indoor  or  an  outdoor  occupation  ? 
Why? 

5.  How  may  an  indoor  worker  guard  his  health  so  that  he  may  keep 
well  and  strong  ? 

6.  If  you  have  in  mind  the  occupation  in  which  you  expect  to  engage 
in  later  life  make  a  list  of  all  the  points  in  favor  and  against  it  from  the 
point  of  health. 


HEALTH  75 

THE   COMMUNITY  AND   HEALTH 

We  have  seen  that  health  is  one  of  the  common  inter- 
ests of  every  community.  The  very  life  and  existence 
of  the  community  depend  upon  the  safeguarding  of  the 
health  of  the  group.  We  find,  therefore,  that  the  people 
are  vitally  concerned  and  that  in  order  to  achieve  their 
desires  for  this  element  of  common  welfare  they  have 
built  up  a  rather  complicated  organization  which  forms  a 
part  of  what  we  call  the  machinery  of  government. 

Whenever  we  use  the  word  government  in  connection 
with  our  own  country  we  must  remember  that  we  are 
referring  to  the  power  or  control  which  all  the  people  of 
the  nation  exercise.  The  President  is  not  the  govern- 
ment, nor  is  the  Governor,  nor  Mayor,  nor  Judge,  nor  Con- 
gressman, nor  any  of  the  officials  of  city,  state,  or  nation. 
They  are  merely  the  representatives  of  the  people  of  their 
respective  communities,  charged  with  the  carrying  out  of 
the  desires  of  the  people.  The  source  of  all  authority  in 
our  nation  is  the  people.  The  laws  merely  represent  what 
the  people  have  willed  through  their  representatives.  The 
authorities  or  representatives,  be  they  President  or  po- 
liceman, are  merely  standing  in  the  place  of  all  the  people 
and  carrying  out  their  wishes. 

In  our  study  of  the  ways  in  which  the  community  safe- 
guards its  health  we  have  seen  many  ordinances  and 
laws,  but  they  have  always  been  the  expressed  wish  of 
the  people  of  the  community.  We  have  studied  about 
the  work  of  many  people  who  are  busily  engaged  in  en- 
forcing these  laws,  but  they  have  always  been  the  agents 


76  THE   ELEMENTS  OF   COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

of  the  people,  their  employees,  doing  what  the  people 
have  instructed  them  to  do. 

To  manage  the  affairs  of  a  community  such  as  our  city, 
or  our  state,  or  our  nation,  is  a  very  great  task.  It  is 
bigger  than  the  management  of  any  single  business  enter- 
prise. We  all  know  how  necessary  it  is  that  a  business 
concern  be  organized  so  that  the  work  may  be  done 
promptly  and  well.  How  much  more  necessary  organiza- 
tion must  be  in  the  management  of  the  great  business  of 
running  our  cities,  our  states,  and  our  nation. 

In  a  later  section  of  the  book  we  shall  consider  in  greater 
detail  some  facts  about  the  organization  of  our  govern- 
ments. It  will  be  sufficient  at  this  point  if  we  get  just 
a  brief  idea  of  the  general  plan  of  government  which  we 
find  in  our  communities,  so  that  when  terms  are  used  we 
shall  understand  what  is  meant. 

The  work  of  running  any  one  of  our  communities  is 
divided  into  three  parts.  First,  there  is  the  branch  of 
government  which  is  responsible  for  making  the  laws. 
That  means  putting  into  words  the  things  which  the  people 
of  the  community  desire.  It  is  called  the  legislative, 
or  law-making,  branch.  Then  there  is  the  branch  of  gov- 
ernment which  sees  that  the  laws  which  have  been  made 
are  carried  out  or  enforced.  It  is  called  the  executive,  or 
law-enforcing,  branch.  And  third,  there  is  the  branch  of 
government  which  is  concerned  with  explaining  the  meaning 
of  laws  that  have  been  made  and  thereby  helping  to  enforce 
them.     It  is  called  the  judicial,  or  law-interpreting  branch. 

In  our  study  of  the  elements  of  welfare  we  shall  be  con- 
cerned chiefly  with  the  work  of  the  executive  branch.     In 


HEALTH  77 

fact  the  great  bulk  of  the  work  of  the  government  is  carried 
on  by  this  branch.  In  our  cities,  for  example,  the  laws 
concerning  public  health  are  enforced  by  the  chief  execu- 
tive of  the  city  government,  the  Mayor.  Since,  however, 
he  is  unable  to  handle  all  this  work  himself  and  is  usually 
lacking  in  the  technical  knowledge,  he  calls  upon  some 
prominent  physician  and  makes  him  head  of  the  health 
department  of  the  city.  The  health  department  has  so 
much  work  to  do  that  it  is  as  necessary  for  it  to  be 
organized  as  any  other  business.  The  work  is  therefore 
divided  up  among  the  various  bureaus  of  which  the  de- 
partment is  composed.  Over  each  bureau  we  find  a  chief 
who  is  especially  skilled  in  his  own  particular  field  of  work. 
Each  bureau  will  have  many  employees,  depending  upon 
the  amount  of  work  which  must  be  done.  So  it  is  that 
when  the  inspector  comes  to  our  home  he  is  not  only  rep- 
resenting the  bureau  of  health,  and  standing  in  the  place 
of  the  director,  but  also  representing  the  Mayor  or  chief 
executive  of  the  city.  And  since  the  Mayor  is  standing 
in  the  place  of  all  the  people,  we  may  easily  see  that 
behind  the  word  of  the  inspector  is  finally  the  word  and 
power  of  all  the  people  of  the  community.  So  it  is  that 
the  power  which  comes  from  the  people  is  represented  in 
the  person  of  one  man  who  in  respect  to  matters  of  health 
has  been  chosen  to  stand  in  the  place  of  all  the  people. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION 

i.  Make  a  list  of  the  various  services  rendered  by  your  local  health 
department. 

2.  Trace  the  source  of  authority  of  a  nuisance  inspector  back  to 
the  people. 


78  THE   ELEMENTS  OF   COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

3.  Secure  a  copy  of  the  last  annual  report  of  your  local  health  de- 
partment. 

4.  How  could  you  justify  on  the  ground  of  public  health  a  law  mak- 
ing spitting  on  the  streets  a  misdemeanor  ? 

5.  Make  a  list  of  some  of  the  ordinances  of  your  city  which  seem 
to  you  to  be  especially  good  as  measures  for  health  protection. 

6.  What  relation  is  there  between  the  public  playgrounds,  gym- 
nasiums, swimming  pools,  and  so  forth,  of  your  community  and  the 
public  health? 

7.  What  other  city  departments  besides  that  of  health  are  concerned 
in  any  way  with  the  preservation  of  the  public  health  ? 

8.  Make  a  list  of  some  of  the  ways  in  which  your  state  aids  in  pro- 
tecting the  public  health. 

9.  Make  a  list  of  the  departments  of  your  state  government  which 
are  concerned  in  any  way  with  the  health  problem. 

10.  Trace  the  source  of  authority  of  a  state  health  agent  back  to  the 
people. 

11.  What  arguments  could  you  advance  for  the  establishment  of  a 
department  of  health  as  a  part  of  the  national  plan  of  government  ? 

12.  Find  out  all  you  can  about  the  work  of  each  of  the  following 
bureaus  in  relation  to  the  public  health: 

The  bureau  of  chemistry. 

The  bureau  of  animal  industry. 

The  bureau  of  entomology  under  the  Department  of  Agriculture. 

The  public  health  service  under  the  Department  of  the  Treasury. 

The  children's  bureau  under  the  Department  of  Labor. 

13.  Trace  the  source  of  authority  of  an  agent  of  one  of  these  bureaus 
back  to  the  people. 

14.  What  amendment  to  the  national  constitution  most  directly 
affects  the  health  of  the  people  of  the  nation  ?    Why  ? 

INDIVIDUAL  RESPONSIBILITY  FOR  HEALTH 
It  is  the  duty  of  the  good  citizen  to  keep  himself  in 
good  health.  Deprived  of  his  health,  he  is  no  longer  able 
to  serve  his  community  and  becomes  a  drag  upon  it.  All 
sickness  is  not  preventable,  but  there  is  a  great  deal  of 
disease  and  misery  in  every  community  which  is  the  re- 


HEALTH  79 

suit  of  the  carelessness  of  some  one.  Sometimes  it  is 
individual  neglect.  At  other  times  it  is  the  fault  of  con- 
ditions over  which  the  individual  is  powerless  to  exercise 
control,  but  which  the  community  as  a  whole  could  easily 
regulate.  We  must  learn  to  feel  an  individual  responsi- 
bility for  matters  which,  even  though  they  may  not  affect 
us  personally,  yet  may  be  injurious  to  others.  To  no 
small  degree  are  we  the  keepers  of  our  brother's  health. 

The  citizen  who  wilfully  undermines  the  health  of  other 
members  of  the  community,  whether  it  be  by  maintain- 
ing nuisances,  neglect  of  sanitary  precautions,  food  adul- 
teration, or  in  any  other  manner,  is  an  enemy  to  the  com- 
munity. He  is  a  menace  to  the  group  of  which  he  is  a 
member  and  should  be  tolerated  no  longer  than  is  neces- 
sary to  detect  him. 

The  rights  of  the  community  as  a  whole  are  far  greater 
than  those  of  any  individual  member.  If  sickness  were  a 
matter  which  affected  only  the  individual  it  might  be 
overlooked  as  a  community  problem.  But  there  is  no 
sickness  or  disease  which  does  not  directly  or  indirectly 
affect  the  entire  group.  The  community  has  the  right 
to  require  of  each  one  of  us  such  action  as  will  make  for 
the  best  interest  of  all.  It  is  a  matter  of  willing  co-opera- 
tion. 

There  is  no  better  opportunity  for  proving  the  worth  of 
one's  citizenship  and  the  fulness  of  one's  patriotism  than 
that  of  being  willing  to  do  cheerfully  those  things  which 
will  make  for  health,  personal  and  social.  Let  us  prove 
that  we  are  patriots  and  not  slackers  by  our  willing  effort 
to  advance  in  every  way  possible  the  public  health. 


CHAPTER  VII 
PROTECTION   OF   LIFE   AND   PROPERTY 

Living  has  been  called  the  most  dangerous  thing  in  life. 
And  there  is  much  truth  in  this  statement.  This  is  espe- 
cially true  of  life  in  a  large  city  where,  because  of  the  great 
throngs  of  people,  the  vast  amount  of  business  which  is 
going  on,  and  the  rate  of  speed  at  which  everything  is  done, 
accidents  are  so  likely  to  happen.  As  life  is  the  one  thing 
which  we  desire  above  all  others  we  should  expect  to  find 
that  every  possible  precaution  would  be  taken.  And  yet, 
every  morning  and  evening,  as  we  look  into  the  newspapers, 
we  are  almost  certain  to  see  accounts  of  accidents  resulting 
in  the  injury  or  loss  of  life  of  people  and  the  destruction  of 
property.  That  such  accidents  and  the  resulting  loss  of 
life  do  not  occur  even  more  frequently  is  due  solely  to  the 
many  precautions  which  the  people  of  the  community  have 
taken  to  protect  themselves.  If  we  keep  our  eyes  open  we 
shall  be  able  to  see  many  of  these  precautions  every  time  we 
walk  along  the  street. 

As  we  leave  our  home  in  the  morning  we  are  careful  to 
see  that  the  door  of  the  house  is  locked.  At  the  corner 
of  the  street  we  see  the  big  policeman,  who  has  been  on 
guard  through  the  night,  calling  up  the  station  house  on 
the  police  phone.  Alongside  of  the  letter  box  stands  the 
red  fire  alarm  box  from  which  the  alarm  would  be  sent  in 

80 


PROTECTION  OF  LIFE  AND   PROPERTY  8 1 

case  of  fire  in  one  of  the  houses  in  our  neighborhood.  As 
the  trolley  car  rounds  the  corner  we  notice  the  low  hanging 
fender  on  guard  to  prevent  any  one  who  might  by  accident 
fall  in  front  of  the  car  from  being  run  over  by  the  wheels. 
We  notice  that  the  automobiles  cut  down  their  speed  as 
they  approach  the  street  corners,  and  that  they  do  not  pass 
standing  trolleys,  but  wait  until  the  passengers  have  been 
discharged.  Here  is  a  tall  building  with  its  fire  escape. 
As  we  approach  the  railroad  we  see  that  the  grade  crossing 
is  protected  by  gates  and  by  a  watchman,  or  better  still, 
there  is  no  grade  crossing,  as  the  tracks  have  been  elevated. 
On  the  railroads  we  notice  the  semaphore,  or  signals  warning 
the  engineers  as  to  the  condition  of  the  track  on  which  they 
are  traveling.  And  so  we  might  go  on  and  enumerate  many 
other  evidences  of  the  care  of  the  community  to  protect 
itself  from  danger. 

There  are  surely  many  sources  of  danger  in  a  modern 
community.  Whether  in  our  homes  or  on  the  streets, 
riding  in  the  cars  or  while  in  our  places  of  business,  we  are 
constantly  surrounded  by  danger.  And  yet  most  of  the 
accidents  which  occur  are  the  result  of  some  one's  careless- 
ness. Sometimes  it  is  the  fault  of  the  motorman  or  the 
driver  of  the  automobile.  Sometimes  it  is  the  fault  of  the 
person  who  has  been  injured.  There  is  one  word  which 
sums  up  the  cause  of  most  accidents.  It  is  careless- 
ness. Because  of  this  fact  a  campaign  is  being  waged 
constantly  to  save  people  from  the  results  of  their  own  care- 
lessness. You  have  often  heard  the  motto  Safety  First. 
It  is  the  keynote  of  a  campaign  to  get  each  one  of  us  to  be 
careful,  to  think  before  we   act.     The  railroads  for  many 


82  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

years  have  had  a  legend  which  they  expose  in  a  prominent 
manner  at  railroad  crossings.  It  is  "  Stop,  Look,  and 
Listen."  If  it  were  observed  more  faithfully  by  every  one, 
not  only  at  railroad  crossings,  but  also  at  street  crossings, 
the  death  toll  from  accidents  would  be  very  materially 
reduced. 

THE  PREVENTION   OF  ACCIDENT 

At  Home.  —  We  sometimes  feel  that  when  we  are  in 
our  own  homes  we  are  in  the  safest  place  of  all.  And  we 
may  be  if  we  exercise  the  precautions  which  it  is  necessary 
to  take  even  in  our  own  homes.  Occasionally,  however,  it 
is  here  that  some  of  the  worst  accidents  occur.  There  are 
many  sources  of  danger  even  at  home.  The  gas  which  we 
use  to  light  our  houses  and  with  which  we  do  our  cooking 
has  been  responsible  for  many  deaths,  in  spite  of  the  fact 
that  the  manufacturers  give  it  a  peculiarly  objectionable 
odor  so  as  to  warn  us  in  case  it  is  escaping.  The  leaving 
of  a  gas  jet  burning  near  an  open  window  where  the  wind 
may  blow  it  out  is  dangerous.  But  the  greatest  danger 
comes  from  the  use  of  the  slot  or  prepayment  meter.  If 
the  gas  happens  to  give  out  while  the  lights  are  burning, 
especially  after  some  of  the  family  have  gone  to  *bed,  and 
some  one  puts  a  quarter  into  the  meter  and  neglects  to  ex- 
amine all  the  jets  in  the  house,  a  serious  accident  may  occur. 
There  have  been  so  many  accidents  arising  from  just  this 
cause  that  it  pays  to  be  very  careful. 

Then  of  course  there  is  the  danger  from  fire.  The  care- 
less use  of  matches ;  the  placing  of  hot  ashes  into  wooden 
boxes  ;  the  thoughtless  disposal  of  oily  rags  ;  the  overheated 
furnace  ;  the  accumulation  of  piles  of  rubbish  ;  the  keeping 


PROTECTION  OF  LIFE  AND   PROPERTY 


83 


of  gasoline  and  oil  on  the  premises ;  neglecting  to  turn  off 
the  current  when  leaving  an  electric  iron  on  the  ironing 
board  ;  the  kindling  of  fires  with  oil,  —  are  all  frequent 
causes  of  fire  which  often  results  in  loss  of  life  and  property. 
The  community  takes  every  precaution  to  prevent  fires 
and  also  to  reduce  accidents  to  life  in  case  of  fire.  Within 
city  limits  only  certain 
types  of  building  con- 
struction are  permitted. 
Strict  laws  have  been 
made  covering  the  use 
and  storage  of  explosives 
and  highly  inflammable 
materials  in  buildings. 
All  buildings  above  a 
certain  height  must  be 
equipped  with  fire  es- 
capes. To  see  that  these 
laws  are  obeyed  there  are 
frequent  inspections  by 
the  city  inspectors.  A 
great  danger  to  life  lies 
in  permitting  obstruc- 
tions to  be  placed  on  fire 
escapes,  or  in  allowing 
the  exits  to  these  to  be 
locked.  Severe  penalties  are  attached  to  the  violation  of 
these  laws. 

On  the  Street.  —  On  the  street,  especially  during  the 
busy  hours  of  the  day,  there  is  danger,  particularly  to  old 


At  Important  Crossings  We   Find  the 
Traffic  Officer 


84 


THE   ELEMENTS   OF   COMMUNITY  WELFARE 


folks  and  children.  At  the  important  crossings  where  there 
is  great  congestion  of  traffic  we  find  the  traffic  officer.  He 
is  directing  the  movement  of  the  countless  motor-driven 
vehicles  and  cars,  and  in  that  way  enabling  the  thou- 
sands of  people  who  cross  and  recross  the  street  to  do  so  in 
safety.     Traffic  has  become  so  dense  in  some  of  our  city 


Copyright  by  Brown  Brothers 
Traffic  Has  Become  so  Dense  that  it  Has  Become   Necessary  to  Make 
Strict  Rules  as  to  just  how  a  Vehicle  Shall  Proceed 

streets  that  it  has  become  necessary  to  make  very  strict 
rules  as  to  just  how  a  vehicle  shall  proceed  in  going  through 
the  city.  Often  certain  streets  are  designated  as  one  way 
streets.  The  rate  of  speed  is  limited  and  many  other  pre- 
cautions are  taken  to  protect  the  lives  of  the  pedestrians. 
Overhead  signs  and  wires  have  also  been  a  source  of  acci- 
dent especially  in  time  of  storm,  to  say  nothing  of  the  un- 
sightliness  of  these  things.     Most  communities  have  very 


PROTECTION  OF  LIFE  AND  PROPERTY       85 

definite  regulations  as  to  the  hanging  of  signs.     In  some 
places  all  wires  must  be  run  underground. 

In  olden  times  travel  upon  the  streets  after  dark  was 
particularly  dangerous.  This  was  not  due,  as  you  may  well 
imagine,  to  the  traffic,  but  to  the  highwayman  who  took 
advantage  of  the  darkness  to  cover  his  crime.  Well-to-do 
people  when  they  had  to  travel  at  night  went  surrounded 
by  their  servants  who  were  armed.  There  were  also  public 
lightbearers  called  linkmen,  who  carried  great  flaming  torches, 
or  links,  with  which  they  would  for  a  sum  of  money  light  the 
pedestrian  along  the  road.  The  roads  were  usually  so  bad 
and  so  full  of  holes  that  it  was  unsafe  to  attempt  to  travel 
without  a  light.  On  the  other  hand  the  linkmen  often 
proved  to  be  in  league  with  the  robbers  and  would  lead 
their  clients  right  into  the  hands  of  the  highwaymen.  To- 
day our  brilliantly  lighted  streets  have  done  much  to  banish 
crime.  Every  arc  light  which  we  see  along  our  city  streets 
is  like  a  great  policeman  keeping  away  the  undesirable 
characters. 

On  the  Railroad.  —  When  we  travel  on  the  railroad  we 
do  not  often  give  much  thought  to  the  possibility  of  acci- 
dent. We  know  that  the  tracks  and  roadbed  are  being 
watched  carefully  for  any  needed  repairs.  Out  by  the  side 
of  the  track  stands  the  silent  but  ever  watchful  guard,  the 
automatic  semaphore,  which  warns  the  engineer  of  the  con- 
dition of  the  track  ahead,  and  puts  a  warning  signal  up 
against  any  other  train  which  might  be  following.  During 
the  war  our  railroads  were  directly  under  the  control  of 
the  national  government.     Prior  to  this  time  the  national 


86  THE  ELEMENTS   OF  COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

government  was  active  in  bringing  about  the  installation 
of  safety  devices  on  all  railroads  of  the  country. 

On  the  Water.  —  Much  travel  and  a  great  deal  of  com- 
merce is  on  the  inland  waterways  and  upon  the  ocean. 
At  several  hundred  points  along  the  sea  coast  and  on 
the  Gulf  the  national  government  maintains  weather 
stations  where  warnings  of  impending  storms  are  issued 
for  the  benefit  of  marine  interests.  Millions  of  dollars 
worth  of  property  and  many  lives  have  been  saved  by  the 
warning  of  a  single  hurricane.  Lighthouses,  buoys,  light- 
ship tenders,  are  maintained  by  the  national  government. 
These  warn  mariners  of  dangerous  rocks  and  shoals,  and 
also  serve  to  aid  them  to  find  their  way  into  the  harbors. 
Ocean-going  ships  are  required  to  be  equipped  with  wire- 
less apparatus  and  operators  so  that  in  case  of  accident 
they  may  call  for  aid.  Inspectors  under  the  direction  of 
the  national  community  see  to  it  that  steamships  are  not 
overcrowded,  and  that  the  boilers,  hulls,  and  life-saving 
devices  are  in  fit  condition. 

In  Industry. — Just  as  in  industry  the  health  of  the  worker 
must  be  protected,  so  must  care  be  taken  to  prevent  in- 
jury or  death  through  accident.  The  high  speed  machin- 
ery which  is  used  in  so  many  of  our  modern  industrial  plants 
is  likely  to  become  dangerous  to  life  and  limb  unless  special 
precautions  are  taken.  As  the  worker  gains  in  speed  and 
skill  in  the  handling  of  machinery  he  is  likely  to  become 
careless.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  after  a  little  while 
the  motions  necessary  to  the  operation  of  a  machine  become 
more  or  less  automatic.     It  is  then  that  accidents  are  most 


PROTECTION  OF  LIFE  AND  PROPERTY  87 

likely  to  occur.  Because  of  this  many  safety  devices  have 
been  invented  which  tend  to  prevent  even  the  careless 
worker  from  bemg  hurt.  For  example,  an  automatic  guard 
makes  it  practically  impossible  for  one  to  have  one's  hand 
or  arm  caught  in  certain  types  of  printing  machines,  as 
the  guard  rising  up  throws  the  arm  out  before  the  press 
comes  together.  Cog-wheels  are  covered  with  guards  so 
as  to  prevent  the  catching  of  one's  clothes.  In  the  coal 
mines,  where  formerly  lives  were  often  lost  through  the 
explosions  of  coal  gas,  devices  have  been  invented  which 
detect  the  presence  of  gas  before  even  the  odor  is  evident. 
Elevators  in  our  large  office  buildings  and  stores  are  regu- 
larly inspected.  Boilers  are  tested  at  regular  intervals. 
In  fact  every  possible  precaution  is  being  used  to  lessen 
the  number  of  deaths  and  accidents  which  are  attendant 
on  modern  industry. 

Individual  Responsibility.  —  But  we  must  ever  remem- 
ber that  a  part  of  the  responsibility  rests  upon  each  one 
of  us.  No  matter  how  fool  proof  the  device  may  be  there 
is  always  the  possibility  of  an  accident  happening.  Brains 
are  still  necessary  if  one  is  to  go  through  life  with  the  posses- 
sion of  one's  members.  We  must  remember  that  all  the 
precautions  have  been  taken  for  our  own  good.  The  best 
of  gates  will  be  of  no  effect  to  the  person  who  deliberately 
climbs  under  or  around  them  and  walks  across  the  railroad 
track  in  front  of  the  swiftly  approaching  train.  As  good 
citizens  we  have  no  business  to  expose  ourselves  to  the  dan- 
ger of  accident  or  death.  Our  lives  do  not  belong  to  our- 
selves alone  but  to  the  community  of  which  we  are  a  part. 


88  THE   ELEMENTS  OF  COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

We  must  ever  be  on  our  guard  against  the  carelessness  which 
may  result  in  loss  of  life  or  injury  to  ourselves  or  to  others. 

SUGGESTIONS   FOR  FURTHER   STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION 

i.  Make  a  list  of  the  accidents  which  you  find  reported  in  this 
morning's  newspaper.  Arrange  these  as  to  place  where  they  have 
occurred  and  the  cause.  Judging  from  the  article  indicate  whether 
or  not  the  accident  was  the  result  of  carelessness. 

2.  What  are  some  of  the  accidents  which  may  occur  to  us  in  our 
homes?     How  could  many  of  these  be  avoided?  » 

3.  What  are  some  of  the  precautions  taken  in  your  school  to  pre- 
vent accidents? 

4.  What  are  some  of  the  dangers  of  children  playing  in  the  street  ? 
How  does  your  community  endeavor  to  prevent  such  accidents  ? 

5.  What  are  some  of  the  duties  of  the  policeman  which  are  con- 
cerned with  accident  prevention? 

6.  What  traffic  regulations  in  your  community  have  as  their  aim 
the  prevention  of  accidents? 

7.  Which  do  you  consider  safer,  travel  on  land  or  water  ?    Why  ? 

8.  What  bureaus  and  department  of  your  city  government  are 
concerned  most  with  the  prevention  of  accident? 

9.  What  are  some  of  your  state  laws  which  concern  the  prevention 
of  accidents  in  industry?    How  are  these  laws  enforced? 

10.  What  departments  of  the  national  government  are  concerned 
with  the  prevention  of  accidents? 

11.  Describe  the  effect  of  an  accident  upon  a  member  of  the  com- 
munity? What  effect  may  this  have  upon  his  family?  Upon  the 
community  ? 

PROTECTION   AGAINST   FIRE 

What  excitement  the  alarm  of  fire  always  causes  !  If 
it  occurs  during  the  day  we  drop  whatever  we  are  doing 
and  run  to  see  the  engines  go  by  or  hurry  to  the  scene  of 
the  fire.  If  it  occurs  during  the  night  we  anxiously  inquire 
as  to  where  it  is,  and  are  not  satisfied  to  go  back  to  bed 


PROTECTION  OF  LIFE  AND  PROPERTY       89 

until  we  learn  that  it  is  at  a  distance  from  our  home  or  that 
it  has  been  extinguished. 

Our  fear  of  fire  is  not  groundless,  for  uncontrolled  fire  is 
one  of  the  most  destructive  enemies  of  the  community. 
Towns  and  even  cities  have  been  almost  entirely  destroyed 
by  fire.  It  has  been  estimated  that  the  cost  in  destruction 
of  property  by  fire  in  the  United  States  amounts  to  about 
five  hundred  dollars  every  minute.  When  we  add  to  this 
the  losS  of  life  and  the  injuries  which  are  the  result  of  fire 
we  can  easily  see  that  it  is  one  of  the  most  destructive  agents 
of  life  and  property.  Against  such  destruction  every  com- 
munity must  wage  continual  warfare.  There  are  two  ways 
of  accomplishing  the  desired  results.  The  one  is  by  pro- 
viding for  efficient  methods  of  fire  fighting,  the  other  by 
fire  prevention. 

Fire  Fighting.  —  Every  fire  that  has  ever  occurred  has 
had  a  very  small  beginning.  Sometimes  it  has  been  as 
small  as  a  spark  or  the  flaming  head  of  a  match.  When  a 
fire  is  just  beginning  it  is  a  very  simple  matter  to  put  it 
out.  It  is  a  time,  however,  when  every  second  counts. 
The  contents  of  a  bucket  of  water  well  directed  or  the  use 
of  a  rug  to  smother  the  flames  has  prevented  many  a  serious 
fire.  We  may  have  seen  buckets  filled  with  water  and 
marked  "  For  fire  use  only."  We  are  all  of  us  familiar 
with  the  fire  extinguishers  which  we  see  in  the  corridors 
of  our  schools  and  in  places  of  business.  These  contain  a 
chemical  which  when  thrown  on  a  fire  quickly  smothers 
the  flames.  Many  of  these  extinguishers  are  so  powerful 
that  they  will  kill  a  fire  even  after  it  has  made  considerable 


90  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  COMMUNITY   WELFARE 

headway.  A  cool  head  and  a  steady  hand  have  checked 
many  a  fire  before  it  has  had  opportunity  to  do  much  dam- 
age, which  if  it  had  not  been  checked  might  have  resulted 
disastrously  to  life  and  property. 

Automatic  Sprinklers.  —  In  addition  to  the  precaution 
which  is  taken  to  make  our  modern  buildings  as  nearly 
fire-proof  as  possible,  many  of  them  are  equipped  with  auto- 
matic sprinkling  devices.  These  consist  of  a  series  of  pipes 
which  are  run  across  the  ceiling  at  regular  intervals.  In 
each  pipe  there  are  a  number  of  small  openings  which  have 
been  plugged  with  a  soft  metal.  These  pipes  are  connected 
with  a  tank  on  the  roof  which  is  kept  full  of  water.  If  a 
fire  breaks  out  in  any  part  of  the  building  the  heat  very 
quickly  melts  the  metal  stoppers  in  the  pipes  and  permits  a 
steady  stream  of  water  to  pour  down  just  over  the  place 
where  the  fire  is.  It  will  be  seen  that  an  ordinary  fire  has 
but  little  chance  against  such  odds.  Often  the  fire  is  ex- 
tinguished before  any  one  knows  that  it  has  taken  place. 

Watchmen.  —  In  our  large  business  concerns  watchmen 
are  employed  whose  business  it  is  to  be  constantly  on  the 
alert  to  detect  fires.  It  is  their  duty  as  soon  as  a  fire  is 
discovered  to  give  the  alarm  and  then  to  fight  the  fire  by 
using  the  hand  fire  extinguishers  until  help  arrives.  In 
some  places  we  find  the  employees  organized  into  a  regular 
fire  department.  Each  man  has  his  station  to  which  he 
must  go  in  case  of  a  fire  and  certain  tasks  to  perform.  The 
city  fire  department  aids  in  training  the  members  of  such 
private  fire  departments  in  the  best  methods  of  fire  fighting. 


PROTECTION  OF  LIFE  AND   PROPERTY  91 

The  Fire  Department.  —  The  problem  of  fire  fighting 
is  such  an  important  one  that  the  community  is  unwilling 
to  leave  the  matter  entirely  in  the  hands  of  individual  citi- 
zens, no  matter  how  trustworthy  they  may  be.  In  former 
times  the  fire  departments  were  made  up  of  volunteers  who 
served  as  an  act  of  public  service.  In  this  manner  most 
of  our  modern  fire-fighting  forces  had  their  origin.  These 
men  rendered  splendid  service,  but  as  the  cities  grew  it  be- 
came increasingly  impossible  to  leave  so  important  a  matter 
in  the  hands  of  volunteers  and  so  the  beginnings  of  our  present 
fire  departments  were  made.  The  new  fire  department  is 
made  up  of  men  who  give  their  entire  time  to  the  fighting 
and  prevention  of  fire. 

The  fire  departments  of  our  cities  are  carefully  organized 
so  as  to  be  able  to  fight  fires  most  effectively.  Scattered 
all  over  the  city  we  find  the  fire  stations  where  the  fire-fight- 
ing apparatus  is  kept  and  where  the  firemen  await  the  alarm 
of  fire.  Each  engine  or  piece  of  apparatus  has  its  own  crew 
and  officers  making  up  what  is  usually  called  a  company 
with  a  captain  in  charge.  A  number  of  companies  form  a 
battalion  in  charge  of  a  battalion  chief.  So  the  organiza- 
tion is  built  up  until  we  come  to  the  chief  of  the  bureau  of 
fire,  a  most  essential  part  of  the  executive  branch  of  com- 
munity government. 

The  Fireman.  —  To  some  the  life  of  a  fireman  seems  to 
be  one  of  ease.  And  this  must  naturally  be  the  case,  for 
his  work  is  such  that  he  must  ever  be  ready  waiting  at  the 
fire  station  to  respond  to  the  alarm  of  fire.  There  will  be 
days  when  there  will  not  be  the  slightest  opportunity  for 


There  Are  No  Braver  Men  to  Be  Found  Anywhere  than  among  the 
Fire  Fighters  of  Our  Cities 


PROTECTION  OF  LIFE  AND   PROPERTY  93 

his  work.  Part  of  his  time  to  be  sure  is  spent  in  taking 
care  of  the  apparatus  used  in  fighting  fires,  or  being  on  duty 
to  keep  a  record  of  the  alarms  of  fire  in  other  sections  of  the 
city  to  which  his  company,  does  not  respond.  But  sooner 
or  later  there  comes  the  day  or  the  night  when  his  period 
of  ease  comes  to  an  end  and  when  he  must  be  ready  to  work 
unceasingly  hour  after  hour  in  the  face  of  the  greatest  of 
perils  and  if  need  be  sacrifice  his  life  in  the  performance  of 
duty. 

There  are  no  braver  men  to  be  found  anywhere  than 
among  the  fire  fighters  of  our  cities.  Many  of  them  bear 
the  scars  of  battle  with  the  flames  gained  in  the  saving  of 
human  life.  No  hero  of  field  of  battle  deserves  more  nobly 
to  wear  the  medals  of  heroic  action  than  the  unselfish  fire- 
man. Occasionally  he  reaps  the  reward  of  a  particularly 
brave  and  unselfish  act  when  at  some  public  gathering  his 
bravery  is  recognized  and  a  medal  is  pinned  on  his  uniform 
by  some  public  official.  More  often,  however,  his  patriot- 
ism is  taken  as  a  matter  of  course  and  a  mere  part  of  his 
everyday  business. 

Fire  Schools.  —  Many  of  our  large  cities  have  a  school 
to  which  a  newly  appointed  fireman  is  sent.  Here  he  is 
instructed  as  to  the  duties  of  a  fireman.  He  learns  how 
to  make  the  fire  inspections  which  are  a  part  of  his  work, 
and  how  to  report  fire  risks.  He  is  instructed  in  methods 
of  fire  prevention  and  fire  fighting.  He  is  drilled  in  methods 
of  entering  a  burning  building,  in  wearing  the  smoke  mask 
or  oxygen  helmet,  in  rescuing  and  resuscitating  people 
trapped  by  fire,  in  the  use  of  the  pulmotor  and  other  first 


94  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

aid  measures.  He  becomes  familiar  with  the  various  types 
of  fire-fighting  apparatus  and  the  use  of  each.  He  is  so 
schooled  that  when  he  enters  upon  the  performance  of  his 
new  task  he  is  able  to  perform  his  service  intelligently. 

The  Fire  Station.  —  A  visit  to  a  fire  station  will  prove 
most  interesting.  If  we  live  in  even  a  very  small  town  we 
will  most  likely  find  an  automobile  engine  with  which 
the  race  to  the  fire  can  be  made  in  short  order.  The 
engine  is  used  to  pump  the  water  from  a  near-by  well  or 
other  source.  We  would  be  surprised  to  see  how  strong 
and  steady  a  stream  of  water  it  can  throw.  In  the  fire  sta- 
tions of  our  larger  towns  and  cities  we  will  find  large  and 
powerful  engines  for  fighting  fire.  Most  of  these  are  motor- 
driven.  Here  and  there  we  still  find  the  older  horse-drawn 
engine,  but  it  is  rapidly  being  replaced  by  the  automobile 
engine.  These  engines  are  capable  of  developing  great 
speed  on  the  way  to  the  fire.  It  is  also  possible  to  bring 
them  from  districts  far  removed.  The  engines  used  for 
pumping  water  are  very  powerful,  some  of  them  being  able 
to  throw  as  much  as  a  thousand  gallons  of  water  a  minute. 
Then  there  are  the  hook  and  ladder  trucks  which  carry 
the  ladders  with  which  the  firemen  are  able  to  scale  the 
walls  of  the  highest  buildings.  These  also  carry  the  life 
nets  which  are  used  to  catch  people  who  are  shut  off  from 
all  other  means  of  escape  and  have  to  jump  from  the  burn- 
ing building.  The  chemical  engine  is  used  for  fighting 
smaller  fires.  Its  tank  contains  a  powerful  chemical  fire 
extinguisher  which  is  usually  sufficient  to  conquer  a  small 
fire.     As  this  fluid  dries  quickly  and  does  less  damage  than 


PROTECTION  OF  LIFE  AND  PROPERTY  95 

water  to  the  furniture  of  a  building  it  is  used  whenever 
possible. 

Water  Towers.  —  The  larger  cities  are  making  use  of 
fire  engines  known  as  water  towers.  The  very  tall  build- 
ings make  these  necessary  as  it  is  not  possible  to  reach  the 
upper  floors  with  ladders  and  hose.  It  is  really  a  great  steel 
tower  or  pipe  mounted  on  a  motor  truck.  It  is  constructed 
on  the  plan  of  a  telescope  so  that  when  the  scene  of  the  fire 
is  reached  the  tower  is  extended  out  by  means  of  the  motor 
until  the  nozzle  at  the  top  is  opposite  the  windows  where 
the  stream  of  water  is  to  be  directed.  The  water  is  forced 
up  through  the  tower  under  very  high  pressure.  The  force 
of  the  stream  is  so  great  that  it  immediately  tears  away 
the  strongest  glass  windows. 

High  Pressure  Systems.  —  The  danger  from  fire  is  so 
great  that  our  large  cities  are  not  willing  to  rely  even  upon 
these  powerful  engines  and  the  regular  supply  of  water 
which  is  obtained  at  the  fire  plugs.  We  usually  find  in  the 
more  important  business  sections  of  the  city  a  separate  water 
supply  system  the  sole  purpose  of  which  is  for  use  in  case 
of  fire.  The  water  for  this  is  usually  taken  from  some 
near-by  river  or  lake  and  is  not  filtered.  At  the  source  of 
supply  there  are  high  pressure  pumping  stations.  The 
power  is  generated  by  great  gas  machines  which  force  the 
water  through  the  mains  under  tremendous  pressure. 
When  these  high  pressure  engines  are  running  it  is  possible 
to  throw  a  stream  of  water  to  a  height  of  from  two  to  three 
hundred  feet  from  the  ground.  The  hose  which  is  used 
for  this  purpose  is  larger  and  much  heavier  than  the  ordi- 


96  THE  ELEMENTS   OF   COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

nary  fire  hose.  The  kick  of  the  water  as  it  leaves  the  nozzle 
is  so  great  that  six  or  more  men  are  required  to  handle  one 
line  unless  it  is  attached  to  a  fixed  stand. 

Fire  Boats.  —  When  a  city  has  a  water  front  it  has  been 
found  that  the  maintenance  of  fire  boats  to  aid  in  the  fight- 
ing of  fires  which  occur  along  the  water  is  a  profitable  in- 
vestment. The  unlimited  supply  of  water  which  is  at  their 
command,  and  the  fact  that  they  can  reach  a  side  of  the 
fire  where  the  automobile  engines  cannot  go,  makes  them 
very  useful.  They  carry  powerful  pumps  which  are  capable 
of  throwing  large  streams  of  water  to  a  considerable  height. 
They  are  also  used  in  fighting  fires  which  break  out  on  vessels 
which  are  lying  at  the  docks  or  in  the  river. 

The  Insurance  Patrol.  —  It  will  readily  be  seen  that  the 
damage  resulting  from  a  fire  is  not  all  caused  by  the  fire 
itself.  The  great  volume  of  water  which  the  modern  fire- 
fighting  apparatus  throws  is  likely  to  cause  as  much  damage 
as  the  fire  itself.  There  is  also  considerable  damage  done 
by  smoke.  It  has  been  found  that  if  certain  precautions 
are  taken,  such  as  covering  goods  with  great  waterproof 
sheets,  and  moving  articles  out  of  the  way  of  fire  and  water, 
much  damage  and  loss  of  property  may  be  prevented. 
As  the  insurance  companies  help  meet  the  expenses  caused 
by  fire  damage  they  have  found  that  it  pays  to  employ  a 
number  of  men  whose  sole  business  is  to  save  as  much  prop- 
erty as  possible  from  injury  and  destruction.  We  may 
have  seen  these  men  dashing  to  a  fire  in  their  automobile 
which  looks  just  like  a  fire  engine  and  which  has  painted 
on  its  sides  the  words  "  Insurance  Patrol." 


PROTECTION  OF  LIFE  AND  PROPERTY 


97 


Fire  Alarms.  —  The  method  of  sending  in  alarms  of  fire 
is  most  interesting.  We  find  all  types  in  use  from  the  most 
primitive  to  the  modern.  In  some  small  towns  a  great  bell 
or  even  an  old  iron  tire  is  hung  up  at  some  central  point. 
A  heavy  hammer  is  kept  close  at  hand.  The  alarm  of  fire 
is  given  by  striking  with  the  hammer  on  the  bell  or  tire,  thus 


These  Boxes  Are  Connected  by  Wire  with  a  Central  Exchange,  and  from 
this  Office  the  Alarm  Is  Sent  to  the  Company  which  Is  to  Respond 


arousing  the  town.  Some  cities  announce  fires  on  a  great 
bell  or  by  a  series  of  blasts  on  a  whistle.  The  various  sec- 
tions of  the  city  are  numbered  so  that  to  announce  a  fire  in 
a  certain  district,  for  instance  number  thirty-two,  there  are 
three  strokes,  then  a  pause  and  then  two  strokes  on  the  bell. 
This  is  repeated  a  number  of  times.  The  engines  respond- 
ing to  the  alarm  go  to  the  alarm  box  of  that  district  where 
they  are  directed  to  the  scene  of  the  fire.     Such  a  method 


98  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

attracts  many  people  to  the  scene  of  the  fire,  and  as  crowds 
often  get  in  the  way  of  the  firemen  and  interfere  with  their 
work  and  also  at  times  get  into  places  of  danger,  this  method 
is  not  generally  favored. 

Most  of  us  are  familiar  with  the  fire  alarm  box.  If  we 
do  not  know  where  the  one  nearest  to  our  home  is  located, 
we  should  make  it  our  business  to  find  out  at  once.  We 
should  also  make  sure  that  we  understand  the  directions 
which  tell  us  how  to  send  in  an  alarm  in  case  of  fire.  These 
boxes  are  connected  by  wire  with  a  central  exchange,  and 
from  this  office  the  alarm  is  sent  to  the  company  or  com- 
panies which  are  to  respond.  All  fire  companies  through 
the  city  receive  notice  of  all  alarms  so  that  they  may  know 
just  what  is  going  on.  A  careful  record  of  all  alarms  is  kept 
at  each  station.  When  the  companies  from  one  district 
have  responded  to  an  alarm  the  duty  of  covering  that  dis- 
trict in  case  of  another  fire  falls  upon  other  companies. 

Fire  Prevention.  —  Building  laws  and  inspection.  Fire 
is  such  a  destroyer  of  life  and  property  that  every  com- 
munity has  undertaken  in  many  ways  to  prevent  it.  While 
it  does  not  seem  to  be  possible  to  build  an  absolutely  fire- 
proof building  yet  it  is  possible  to  build  so  as  to  reduce  the 
chances  of  fire  to  a  minimum.  The  substitution  of  con- 
crete and  steel  for  wood  has  been  a  stride  in  this  direction. 
In  our  large  cities  the  erection  of  wooden  buildings  is  for 
the  most  part  prohibited  by  ordinance.  It  is  necessary 
that  a  permit  be  secured  before  any  building  operation  or 
alteration  be  undertaken.  This  makes  it  possible  for  cer- 
tain definite  requirements  to  be  exacted.     The  following 


PROTECTION  OF  LIFE  AND  PROPERTY  99 

up  of  the  builder  by  inspectors  makes  sure  that  he  is  con- 
forming to  the  specifications.  The  stage  of  theaters,  for 
example,  where  fires  so  often  originate,  must  be  able  to  be 
shut  off  from  the  body  of  the  house  by  a  fire-proof  wall  and 
curtain.  It  is  possible  to  confine  a  fire  to  the  stage  for  a 
sufficient  length  of  time  to  permit  every  person  in  the  house 
to  get  out  without  rushing.  The  law  prescribes  that  build- 
ings of  a  certain  height  must  be  provided  with  fire  escapes, 
and  also  prescribes  the  width  of  exits,  and  so  forth.  The 
doors  of  public  buildings  are  constructed  so  as  to  open  out- 
ward and  are  provided  with  safety  door  pushes.  This  is 
to  prevent  the  jamming  of  crowds  against  the  doors  and  the 
consequent  loss  of  life. 

Methods  of  heating  and  lighting  buildings  are  also  a 
source  of  fire.  The  tenant  has  little  control  over  these 
matters  and  if  fire  results  it  is  usually  because  of  the  care- 
lessness of  builder  or  inspector.  The  law  requires  the  in- 
spection of  all  electric  wiring  whether  for  purposes  of  light- 
ing or  power.  It  covers  such  matters  as  the  construction 
of  furnaces,  stoves,  and  chimneys.  Boilers  must  be  regu- 
larly inspected  and  tested  as  to  pressure.  Boiler  rooms 
should  be  fire-proof  and  separate  from  the  rest  of  the  build- 
ing if  possible. 

Practically  every  community  has  made  some  provision 
for  the  inspection  of  places  of  business,  theaters,  and  so 
forth,  to  see  that  the  fire  regulations  are  being  observed. 
This  work  of  inspection  is  a  police  power.  The  fire 
marshal  is  attached  to  the  police  department  and  is  in- 
vested with  police  powers.  Together  with  his  assistants 
and  members  of  the  fire  department,  he  takes  care  of  the 


IOO         THE   ELEMENTS   OF   COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

inspection  of  the  city.  These  helpers  are  instructed  by 
the  fire  marshal  in  regard  to  the  laws  for  fire  prevention. 
They  report  to  him  in  regard  to  the  condition  of  all  build- 
ings which  they  inspect. 

The  inspector  looks  for  evidences  of  the  violation  of  fire 
regulations,  such  as  the  blocking  of  fire  escape  exits,  the 
storage  of  materials  on  fire  escapes,  the  storing  of  gasoline 
and  other  combustible  materials,  accumulations  of  rubbish 
and  waste,  and  any  neglect  of  the  common  precautions  for 
safety  against  fire.  He  also  inspects  the  condition  of  fire- 
fighting  apparatus,  water  buckets,  extinguishers,  and  so 
forth.  An  inspector  who  wilfully  shuts  his  eyes  to  condi- 
tions which  should  not  exist,  or  any  one  who  intentionally 
conceals  fire  risks  from  the  inspector,  is  guilty  of  a  criminal 
act. 

Forest  Fires.  —  Not  only  do  buildings  suffer  from  fires, 
but  even  the  very  source  from  which  comes  much  of  our 
building  material.  One  of  the  most  valuable  resources  of 
our  country  is  its  forests.  Not  alone  because  they  are  a 
source  of  supply  for  timber,  but  also  because  they  are  neces- 
sary to  the  fertility  and  productivity  of  our  land.  Regions 
where  forests  have  been  destroyed  have  become  barren 
and  desolate.  Great  sections  of  countries  such  as  China 
have  become  uninhabitable  simply  through  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  forests.  Forest  fires  have  vied  with  man  in  the 
destruction  of  our  forests.  A  few  days  of  forest  fire  can 
destroy  the  work  of  nature  of  over  a  century.  And  most 
of  these  fires  are  the  result  of  carelessness.  Campers  in 
the  woods  fail  to  extinguish  their  camp-fire  before  break- 


PROTECTION  OF  LIFE  ANp   PROPERTY 


IOI 


ing  camp,  a  lighted  match  is  carelessly  thrown  away,  the 
sparks  from  a  locomotive  reach  the  dry  underbush,  and  we 
have  the  beginning  of  a  fire  which  may  do  untold  damage. 
It  has  only  been  of  recent  years  that  the  country  has  begun 
to  awaken  to  the  need  of  safeguarding  its  forests  from  fire. 
To-day  forest  rangers,  representing  both  state  and  national 


A  Fire  Line  through  a  Michigan  Forest 


government,  patrol  the  forests  on  the  lookout  for  fires.  More 
than  two  hundred  million  acres  of  forest  land  are  now  di- 
rectly under  the  control  of  the  national  government.  Ob- 
servation stations  have  been  erected  from  which  a  wide 
view  of  the  country  may  be  obtained.  Strict  regulations 
have  been  made  covering  the  protection  of  our  forests  from 
fire.  Warnings  have  been  printed  and  posted  in  conspicu- 
ous places  at  railroad  stations  and  at  the  road  entrances  to 


r  © 
c  o  a  o  -c  *  e> 
c  *   c  c  <?£  J    © 


I02         THE  ELEMENTS  OF  COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

the  forests.  Fire-fighting  stations  are  maintained  at  con- 
venient points  in  the  forests  from  which  tools  may  be  ob- 
tained for  use  in  fighting  fires.  The  use  of  the  aeroplane 
will  simplify  the  discovery  of  fires  in  the  future. 


INDIVIDUAL  RESPONSIBILITY 

Each  time  we  hear  the  fire  bells  we  may  rightly  feel  that 
they  are  proclaiming  that  some  one  is  an  enemy  to  our  com- 
munity, that  some  one  is  a  poor  citizen,  that  some  one  is 
not  a  patriot.  For  what  patriot  would  deliberately  de- 
stroy a  part  of  the  country  ?  This  is  the  act  of  an  enemy 
and  a  traitor.  And  fire  —  fire  is  the  result  of  carelessness. 
The  carelessness  of  some  member  of  the  community.  And 
the  fire  bells  are  loudly  proclaiming  his  carelessness  and 
disregard  for  the  right  and  welfare  of  his  fellows. 

We  would  not  like  to  feel  that  we  were  poorer  citizens 
and  less  patriotic  than  the  people  of  Europe,  and  yet  we 
destroy  each  year  with  fire,  the  result  of  our  own  careless- 
ness, ten  times  more  property  than  they  do.  The  pride 
which  we  take  in  our  country  should  make  us  be  very  care- 
ful that  this  element  of  waste  be  eliminated. 

The  man  who  is  responsible  for  the  beginning  of  a  fire 
should  be  held  strictly  accountable  for  the  damage  which 
is  done  as  a  result  of  his  carelessness.  It  will  not  be  suffi- 
cient to  go  on  making  laws  regulating  the  construction  of 
buildings  and  their  regular  inspection.  The  improvement 
and  extension  of  our  present  efficient  fire-fighting  forces  will 
not  gain  the  entire  result  which  we  desire.  It  will  only  be 
when  each  individual  citizen  is  made  to  feel  that  he  will  be 


PROTECTION  OF  LIFE  -AND  PROPERTY      103 

held  to  strict  accountability  in  the  eyes  of  the  law  for  all 
damage  to  life  and  property  resulting  through  his  careless- 
ness. When  such  laws  are  made  and  enforced  we  shall 
see  a  decided  falling  off  of  the  number  of  fires  and  a  con- 
sequent saving  of  life  and  property. 

It  is  the  duty  of  the  good  citizen  to  know  the  dangers 
which  may  arise  from  fire.  He  should  understand  the 
precautions  which  should  be  taken  to  prevent  fire  and  the 
proper  methods  of  extinguishing  it  if  discovered  at  the 
beginning.  He  should  understand  the  method  of  sending 
in  the  alarm  of  fire  and  that  it  is  his  duty,  having  sent  the 
alarm,  to  remain  at  the  fire  box  until  the  arrival  of  the  fire- 
men so  as  to  be  able  to  direct  them  to  the  scene  of  the  fire. 
In  addition  to  this  he  should  know  how  to  escape  from  a 
burning  building.  Presence  of  mind  and  quick  action  may 
mean  not  only  the  saving  of  one's  own  life,  but  also  the  lives 
and  property  of  others. 

SUGGESTIONS   FOR  FURTHER   STUDY  AND    DISCUSSION 

1.  Secure  from  your  local  fire  department  or  Fire  Marshal  any 
literature  which  they  may  have  on  methods  of  fire  prevention. 

2.  What  are  some  of  the  more  important  ordinances  concerning 
fire  prevention  which  are  in  force  in  your  community? 

3.  Make  a  list  of  as  many  of  the  possible  causes  of  fire  as  you  can. 
Which  of  these  are  really  preventable  ? 

4.  Make  a  visit  to  a  fire  station.  Write  a  description  of  your  trip, 
illustrating  it  if  possible  with  pictures  of  the  various  types  of  fire-fight- 
ing apparatus. 

5.  What  was  the  fire  loss  in  your  community  last  year?  What 
was  it  for  your  state  ?  What  could  have  been  done  with  the  money  so 
needlessly  destroyed? 

6.  What  are  some  of  the  dangers  of  building  fires  on  the  streets  ? 
of  fireworks  ? 


104         THE  ELEMENTS  OF   COMMUNITY   WELFARE 

7.  What  is  the  value  of  the  fire  drill  which  you  have  in  your  school  ? 

8.  Make  a  set  of  rules  as  to  right  conduct  in  case  of  a  fire  at  home ; 
in  a  theater  or  moving  picture  place;  in  a  factory. 

9.  Find  out  all  you  can  about  the  preservation  of  forests  from  fire 
in  your  state. 

10.   Describe  the  organization  of  your  local  fire  department. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

PROTECTION   OF   LIFE   AND   PROPERTY 

(Continued) 

THE  PRESERVATION  OF  ORDER 

One  of  the  most  important  virtues  which  the  good  citi- 
zen possesses  is  that  of  obedience.  If  we  were  to  live  all 
alone  it  would  only  be  necessary  for  us  to  obey  the  laws  of 
nature.  Most  of  these  laws  we  learn  by  experience,  and 
although  we  do  not  always  follow  them,  we  know  that 
just  as  surely  as  we  disobey  one  of  them  we  must  pay  the 
penalty.  When  we  live  together  with  other  people,  how- 
ever, we  find  that  we  must  conform  to  certain  understood 
rules.  We  are  courteous  to  each  other  because  it  makes 
living  together  easier.  We  respect  the  rights  of  the  other 
fellow,  and  in  return  we  expect  him  to  respect  our  rights. 
In  seeking  after  those  things  which  are  necessary  for  the 
welfare  of  the  group  each  member  should  so  conduct  him- 
self as  not  to  interfere  with  the  welfare  of  the  others.  We 
express  this  in  many  ways  and  one  of  the  ways  is  by 
prescribing  certain  acts  for  the  benefit  of  the  entire  group. 

If  every  one  were  always  mindful  of  the  rights  of  others, 
and  did  not  interfere  with  those  of  his  neighbor,  but  did 
his  best  to  advance  not  only  his  own  interests  but  those 
of  the  group,  there  would  be  no  need  for  a  police  force. 
There  would   be   laws   to  be   sure  that  we   might  know 

105 


106         THE   ELEMENTS  OF   COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

just  what  we  should  or  should  not  do,  but  each  one  would 
see  that  these  laws  were  carried  out  both  in  letter  and 
in  spirit.  Unfortunately  this  state  of  affairs  does  not  exist. 
Every  one  at  times  makes  mistakes.  Then,  too,  there  is  in 
every  community  a  small  group  of  people  not  what  we 
call  socially  minded.  Who  do  not  care  for  the  interests  of 
the  rest  of  the  group.  Either  through  ignorance  or  wil- 
fulness they  seem  to  be  unable  to  see  that  common  interest 
and  welfare  mean  working  together.  It  is  partially  because 
of  the  presence  of  this  group,  that  we  need  our  police. 

The  Policeman.  —  If  we  were  asked  to  mention  the 
duties  of  the  policeman  the  first  would  probably  be,  that 
of  making  arrests.  But  while  this  is  one  of  his  duties 
it  is  by  no  means  the  most  important,  nor  does  it  repre- 
sent to  any  degree  the  amount  of  work  which  he  performs. 
Together  with  the  duty  of  apprehending  criminals,  he 
must  perform  a  host  of  others.  Patrolling  his  beat  he  is 
constantly  on  the  alert  to  protect  our  homes  from  thieves. 
His  mere  presence  is  often  sufficient  to  deter  evil-doers. 
If  he  observes  anything  about  our  houses  or  business 
places  which  seems  to  be  a  fire  menace  or  likely  to  result  in 
injury  or  loss  of  life  it  is  his  duty  to  make  a  report  of  it. 
Holes  in  the  street  or  sidewalk  must  be  reported.  If  nec- 
essary he  must  see  that  such  places  are  guarded  by  means 
of  a  red  flag  by  day  and  a  red  light  by  night,  until  the 
necessary  repairs  have  been  made.  He  sees  that  builders 
engaged  in  making  alterations  to  property  have  the  necessary 
permits.  He  sees  that  the  traffic  regulations  are  obeyed. 
Before  and  after  school  he  is  on  guard  to  protect  the  little 


PROTECTION  OF  LIFE  AND   PROPERTY  107 

folk  as  they  cross  the  busy  streets.  He  is  frequently  called 
upon  to  settle  quarrels  and  disputes.  He  is  expected  to 
be  able  to  answer  all  the  puzzling  questions  that  the 
stranger  in  the  neighborhood  may  care  to  ask.  So  you 
see  he  has  a  rather  busy  time  of  it. 

There  are  cases  when  he  has  to  interfere  with  the  play 
of  the  boys  and  girls.  It  may  be  breaking  up  of  a  ball 
game  or  keeping  of  children  from  catching  rides  behind 
moving  vehicles.  It  is  not  the  individual  policeman, 
however,  who  is  the  cause  of  this.  He  is  not  doing  it 
because  he  wants  to  but  because  it  is  a  part  of  his  duty. 
The  people  of  the  city  who  employ  him,  and  who  will 
discharge  him  if  he  fails  to  do  his  duty,  have  required 
that  he  do  these  things.  As  we  see  him  going  about  en- 
forcing the  laws  we  must  think  of  him  as  the  representa- 
tive of  the  entire  community,  doing  for  all  the  people  what 
they  would  do  for  themselves  if  they  were  able. 

Many  of  the  things  which  the  policeman  is  called  upon 
to  do  require  great  bravery.  During  the  lonely  hours  of 
the  night  he  keeps  guard  over  our  homes.  If  necessary  he 
will  face  great  danger  or  death  to  protect  our  lives  and  our 
property.  In  case  of  fire  he  is  often  called  upon  to  aid 
the  fire  fighters.  He  has  to  be  ready  to  go  to  the  rescue 
of  the  injured  in  case  of  accident.  The  runaway  horse 
must  be  stopped.  In  fact  there  are  calls  for  heroic  acts 
which  place  the  policemen  alongside  the  firemen  as  heroic 
servants  of  the  people. 

The  Mounted  Police  and  Traffic  Squad.  —  The  necessity 
for  covering  large  stretches  of  territory,  particularly  in  the 


108         THE   ELEMENTS  OF   COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

outlying  sections  of  cities,  together  with  the  tremendous 
traffic  in  the  heart  of  the  business  sections,  has  led  to 
the  organization  of  mounted  police  and  the  traffic  squad. 
Police  on  horseback  together  with  those  on  motor  cycles 
do  very  effective  work.  The  swift  motor  cycle  makes  the 
officer  so  mounted  able  to  overtake  violators  of  the  speed 
laws  who  imperil  the  lives  of  other  citizens.  The  foot 
patrolmen  of  the  traffic  squad  help  prevent  hopeless  con- 
fusion from  occurring  as  the  result  of  the  heavy  traffic  in 
the  congested  districts.  By  means  of  whistles,  or  a  sema- 
phore system,  the  traffic  officer  directs  the  movement  of 
countless  automobiles,  and  at  the  same  time  permits  pedes- 
trians safely  to  cross  the  streets  at  the  regular  crossings. 

River  and  Harbor  Police.  —  The  river  or  other  water- 
front of  a  city  presents  special  problems  which  require  a 
somewhat  different  method  of  policing.  Here  we  find 
the  river  or  harbor  police.  Fast  motor  boats  and  the 
sturdy  police  tug  enable  them  to  police  the  water-front 
and  render  there  the  service  necessary  for  the  protection 
of  life  and  property.  These  officers  guard  the  property ; 
go  to  the  rescue  of  drowning  persons ;  arrest  offenders 
against  the  harbor  regulations  and  aid  in  the  fighting  of 
fires  on  the  river  front. 

Detectives.  —  In  addition  to  all  these  policemen,  the 
city  maintains  a  force  of  plain  clothes  men  or  detectives. 
These  men  are  really  policemen,  but  they  do  not  wear  the 
uniform.  They  are  men  who  have  had  special  training 
in  the  methods  of  tracing  and  detecting  criminals.  When 
a.  case  has   foiled  the  regular  officers  so  that  they  have 


PROTECTION  OF  LIFE  AND   PROPERTY  109 

been  unable  to  arrest  the  offenders,  the  detectives  are  called 
upon.  Working  upon  clues  or  tracks  which  have  been  left 
by  the  criminal  they  are  often  able  to  bring  about  his  ar- 
rest. A  very  careful  record  is  kept  of  every  criminal  when 
he  is  caught.  His  photograph  is  taken,  finger  prints 
made,  and  an  accurate  description  and  measurement  re- 
corded. If  at  any  time  after  his  release  the  police  want  to 
find  him  he  can  be  identified  even  though  he  has  assumed 
a  different  name.  The  police  departments  of  various 
cities  work  closely  together  in  this  manner,  records  are  ex- 
changed, and  so  when  a  criminal  from  one  city  comes  into 
another  to  operate  there  he  is  easily  identified. 

Police  Signals.  —  Sometimes  it  is  necessary  to  signal 
for  policemen  just  as  we  have  to  call  for  firemen.  One 
may  of  course  call  loudly  for  help,  but  such  a  summons  does 
not  carry  very  far  and  is  rather  difficult  to  locate.  For- 
merly a  rattle  was  used  for  this  purpose.  These  were 
carried  by  the  police  and  some  people  had  them  in  their 
homes.  This  made  a  loud  and  continuous  noise  which  the 
policeman  recognized.  Better  still,  however,  is  the  whistle. 
Each  policeman  is  equipped  with  one,  with  which  he  may  sum- 
mon the  assistance  of  other  officers.  Pounding  upon  the 
pavement  with  his  club  is  also  another  method.  At  times, 
however,  it  is  necessary  for  the  police  headquarters  or 
station  house  to  get  in  touch  with  the  officer  on  a  certain 
beat.  It  may  be  to  tell  him  of  the  call  for  assistance  which 
has  come  in  over  the  phone  from  some  householder.  In 
some  of  the  large  cities  colored  lights  have  been  installed 
upon  the  tops  of  high  poles.     It  is  possible  to  flash  these 


IIO         THE  ELEMENTS  OF  COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

lights  all  along  the  beat  of  the  officer  desired.  He  hurries 
at  once  to  the  police  phone  and  calls  up  the  central  office, 
where  he  learns  just  what  he  is  to  do. 

Police  Schools.  —  As  you  would  expect,  it  is  necessary 
for  the  newly  appointed  police  officer  to  receive  special 
training  as  to  his  duties.  The  police  school  gives  this 
training.  Here  the  officer  learns  the  traffic  regulations, 
the  duties  of  policemen,  the  city  ordinances  which  it  will 
be  his  duty  to  enforce.  He  is  instructed  as  to  the  methods 
of  securing  and  giving  evidence  in  court  against  offenders. 
He  is  taught  how  to  render  first  aid,  such  as  how  to  resus- 
citate a  drowning  person.  He  is  given  regular  drill  and 
setting  up  exercises  to  improve  his  physique  and  make 
him  physically  able  to  perform  his  duties. 

Organization.  —  The  police  forces  of  our  cities  are  or- 
ganized very  much  like  an  army.  There  are  the  privates, 
policemen  or  patrolmen.  Over  these  there  are  officers, 
roundsmen,  sergeants,  lieutenants,  captains.  And  above 
these  come  the  chief  of  police,  or  the  superintendent,  the 
commissioner,  and  sometimes  the  director  of  public  safety. 
The  titles  and  internal  organization  will  vary  in  the  different 
cities,  but  the  general  plan  and  work  is  much  the  same. 
It  will  be  interesting  to  obtain  a  description  of  just  how  the 
police  force  in  our  own  city  is  Organized. 

State  Police.  —  Even  very  small  communities  have 
some  form  of  police  protection.  In  many  cases,  however, 
in  such  places  he  is  engaged  in  some  other  business.  He 
may  even  fill  practically  all  the  political  positions  of  the 
town.     In  outlying  districts,   however,   there  is  not  even 


PROTECTION  OF  LIFE  AND   PROPERTY  III 

this  method  of  protection.  In  fact,  in  most  places  in 
country  districts  there  would  be  but  little  need  for  a  police 
force  if  they  had  one.  The  larger  community,  the  state, 
however,  has  found  that  a  small  but  efficient  body  of 
mounted  police  can  be  of  very  great  service.  In  Pennsyl- 
vania, for  example,  in  the  region  of  the  coal  and  iron  mines 
there  was  formerly  a  great  deal  of  trouble.  Fighting 
was  constantly  going  on  and  quite  frequently  there  would 
be  murders  committed.  A  lawless  foreign  element  made 
the  place  unsafe  for  almost  any  one.  The  situation  was 
first  handled  through  the  coal  and  iron  police.  These 
men  were  employed  by  the  mining  companies  to  protect 
their  property.  In  some  cases  members  of  the  police 
force  were  no  more  law- respecting  than  the  people  whom 
they  were  supposed  to  control.  Their  presence  often  pro- 
duced a  fight  and  usually  there  were  a  number  of  lives  lost. 
To  overcome  this  the  state  organized  the  State  Constab- 
ulary. This  body,  consisting  of  some  five  hundred  men  to- 
day, constitutes  one  of  the  finest  police  organizations  in  the 
world.  The  men  have  for  the  most  part  served  formerly 
in  the  United  States  cavalry  and  are  expert  horsemen 
and  good  fighters.  Under  this  force  practically  all  of  the 
former  violence  and  bloodshed  in  the  mining  districts 
has  disappeared.  When  not  otherwise  needed  they  are 
used  to  patrol  certain  sections  of  the  state.  If  called 
upon,  however,  the  Governor  will  send  a  part  or  all  of  the 
organization  to  the  aid  of  any  community  in  the  state. 
This  body  of  men  has  succeeded  in  quelling  riots  when 
the  entire  police  force  and  regiments  of  the  National 
Guard  of  the  state  have  failed.     The  system  has  been 


112  THE  ELEMENTS  OF   COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

adopted  by  other  states  and  promises  to  become  an  im- 
portant part  of  the  police  power  of  the  states. 

The  National  Guard.  —  In  the  state  we  also  find  the 
National  Guard,  to  which  reference  has  just  been  made. 
Prior  to  the  great  war,  this  consisted  of  a  number  of 
regiments  located  in  various  parts  of  the  state.  Each 
regiment  had  its  officers  commissioned  by  the  Governor. 
The  men  in  the  regiment  drilled  in  the  armories  at  stated 
intervals.  During  the  summer  there  was  an  annual  en- 
campment which  all  members  were  required  to  attend. 
They  were  paid  for  this.  At  camp  they  were  drilled  in 
the  various  field  maneuvers.  When  the  war  broke  out 
these  men  enlisted  almost  as  one  in  the  United  States 
Army  and  rendered  splendid  service  in  France.  During 
peace  times  they  were  subject  to  the  call  of  the  Governor 
to  render  aid  in  emergencies  arising  within  the  state.  They 
constituted  another  part  of  the  police  force  of  the  state. 

The  Police  of  the  Nation.  The  Army  and  Navy.  — 
We  do  not  usually  think  of  the  Army  and  Navy  of  our 
country  as  the  police  force  and  yet  in  time  of  peace  that  is 
their  business.  The  national  government  requires  that 
its  laws  be  enforced  and  obeyed  and  a  part  of  this  enforc- 
ing is  done  by  the  Army  and  Navy.  Before  the  war  we 
had  a  very  small  standing  army.  It  did  not  exceed  100,000 
men.  With  the  coming  of  war,  however,  the  Army  and  Navy 
grew  with  tremendous  strides.  Between  April,  191 7,  and 
November,  191 8,  the  Army  grew  through  enlistment  and 
selective  service  to  more  than  four  million  strong.  In 
this  period  not  only  was  so  large  a  force  gotten  together, 


PROTECTION  OF  LIFE  AND   PROPERTY  1 13 

but  trained  and  equipped.  Of  this  number  about  half 
were  sent  across  the  Atlantic  in  spite  of  the  efforts  of  the 
German  submarines  to  sink  the  transports.  The  gallant 
work  of  our  Navy  on  the  seas  and  of  our  Army  in  France 
brought  a  speedy  termination  to  the  great  war.  It  was 
but  an  example  of  what  a  great  united  people  could  do 
when  they  put  their  mind  to  a  task  and  set  out  to  accom- 
plish it. 

There  is  not  enough  time  to  give  even  a  meager  de- 
scription of  the  organization  of  the  Army  and  the  Navy. 
With  the  conclusion  of  peace  the  Army  was  rapidly  de- 
mobilized and  early  in  the  Fall  of  191 9  it  had  been  reduced 
to  a  peace  basis.  Congress  has,  however,  decided  to  main- 
tain a  larger  Army  and  Navy  than  before  the  war.  Can 
you  find  out  just  how  large  our  standing  Army  now  is  and 
what  is  the  strength  in  men  and  ships  of  our  Navy  ? 

SUGGESTIONS   FOR  FURTHER   STUDY  AND   DISCUSSION 

1.  The  policeman  has  been  called  the  "  arm  of  the  law."  Trace 
the  source  of  the  authority  of  the  policeman  in  the  execution  of  a  law 
back  to  the  people.     Why  is  the  word  "  arm  "  used? 

2.  Make  a  list  of  the  services  which  are  rendered  to  the  commu- 
nity by  the  policeman. 

3.  Make  a  visit  to  the  near-by  police  station.  Describe  what  you 
saw. 

4.  If  you  have  ever  attended  a  police  carnival  tell  what  you  learned 
there  in  regard  to  the  abilities  of  the  police. 

5.  Describe  the  organization  of  the  police  force  of  your  community. 

6.  How  does  a  man  become  a  policeman  ?  What  are  some  of  the 
qualifications  necessary?  What  are  the  opportunities  for  promotion 
and  advancement? 

7.  Find  out  all  you  can  about  the  work  of  the  state  police.  Why 
is  it  that  we  usually  find  so  many  ex-cavalry  men  among  them  ? 


114         THE   ELEMENTS  OF   COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

8.  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  word  militia  ? 

9.  Of  what  does  the  organized  militia  in  your  state  consist? 

10.  What  is  the  strength  of  the  standing  Army  of  our  country?  of 
our  Navy? 

11.  Find  out  all  you  can  about  the  operation  of  "  selective  service  " 
in  our  country. 

12.  What  is  the  status  of  compulsory  military  training  in  the  United 
States? 

13.  Of  what  value  is  an  army  in  time  of  peace?     Explain. 

14.  How  could  the  armed  forces  of  the  world  be  used  to  compel 
peace  ? 

OTHER  SOURCES  OF  LOSS  OF  LIFE  AND  PROPERTY 

Floods.  —  There  are  many  other  sources  of  loss  of  life 
and  property.  One  of  these  is  flood.  Unless  we  have 
actually  seen  a  river  sweeping  over  its  banks  and  carrying 
away  houses  and  people  we  will  not  be  able  to  appreciate 
the  damage  which  a  flood  can  do.  Sometimes  the  flood 
will  come  from  the  breaking  of  a  dam  which  has  been  con- 
structed to  back  up  the  water  of  a  stream.  Such  a  flood 
at  Johnstown,  Pennsylvania,  several  years  ago,  consti- 
tuted a  great  calamity.  There  are  rivers,  however,  which 
regularly  overflow  when  the  spring  freshets  come.  All 
along  their  course  they  then  carry  death  and  destruction. 
Both  state  and  national  communities  have  been  actively 
fighting  these  floods  for  years.  Levees  or  embankments 
have  been  built  to  prevent-  streams  from  overflowing. 
Forest  reservations  have  been  made  at  the  head  waters 
of  rivers. 

Disease  among  Cattle.  —  The  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry 
has  done  much  to  protect  the  property  of  the  farmer  by  the 
war  which  it  has  waged  on  disease  among  cattle.     It  has 


PROTECTION  OF  LIFE  AND   PROPERTY  1 15 

eliminated  the  Texas  fever  tick  which  threatened  to  destroy 
the  beef  industry.  It  has  quarantined  cattle  suffering  from 
tuberculosis  and  cut  down  considerably  the  loss  from  this 
disease.  It  has  discovered  methods  of  vaccinating  pigs  so 
as  to  prevent  them  from  contracting  cholera. 

Insects.  —  The  insects  of  the  country  destroy  millions 
of  dollars'  worth  of  property  every  year.  Wheat,  cotton, 
and  many  other  of  our  most  valued  products  have  been 
threatened  with  destruction.  The  fight  which  the  Bureau 
of  Entomology  has  waged  against  the  Hessian  fly,  the  joint- 
worm,  the  gipsy  moth,  the  brown-tail  moth,  the  tussock 
moth,  and  a  score  of  other  insect  pests  has  been  unrelenting. 

•  Fraud.  —  Among  other  ways  in  which  property  is  lost 
is  by  fraud.  While  there  may  be  no  actual  destruction 
of  property  here,  yet  to  the  one  who  has  been  cheated  or 
defrauded  it  amounts  to  the  same.  Unscrupulous  dealers 
make  use  of  false  measures  and  weights  in  order  to  make 
greater  gains.  This  is  a  fraud  against  which  the  com- 
munity has  to  protect  itself.  We  find  that  there  are  in- 
spectors whose  business  it  is  to  visit  places  where  articles 
are  sold  and  inspect  the  scales  and  weights.  Here  is  a 
place  where  the  intelligent  citizen  can  take  steps  to  pro- 
tect himself.  We  may  either  make  sure  that  the  scales 
and  weights  have  been  approved  by  the  inspectors,  or  we 
may  take  the  precaution  to  measure  or  weigh  articles 
which  we  suspect  of  being  short.  Then  there  are  the  frauds 
by  means  of  which  unsuspecting  people  are  made  the 
victims  of  various  swindles  in  the  form  of  stocks  and  bonds 
which  are  offered  for  sale.     The  condition  of  banks  in  which 


Il6         THE  ELEMENTS  OF   COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

the  people  invest  their  savings  is  determined  by  state 
bank  examiners.  These  men  go  over  very  carefully  all 
the  accounts  kept  by  the  bank,  make  sure  that  they  are 
correct,  and  see  that  the  officials  do  not  violate  the  laws 
which  have  been  passed  by  the  state  covering  the  handling 
of  the  people's  money. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION 

i.  What  important  rivers  of  our  country  have  to  be  carefully  guarded 
to  prevent  their  overflow? 

2.  How  do  flood  reservoirs  and  forests  help  prevent  floods? 

3.  Read  the  story  of  the  work  which  has  been  done  by  the  Bureaus 
of  Animal  Industry  and  of  Entomology  in  protecting  property  in  our 
country. 

4.  What  is  meant  by  "  blue  sky  "  laws  ? 

5.  How  are  the  standards  of  weights  and  measures  set  for  our  coun- 
try? 

6.  What  are  some  of  the  methods  by  which  dealers  sometimes  de- 
ceive the  public  ?  What  are  the  remedies  which  may  be  used  to  correct 
this  evil? 

INDIVIDUAL   RESPONSIBILITY 

The  protection  of  life  and  property  is  one  of  the  most 
important  duties  of  the  government.  City,  state,  and 
nation  all  work  together  to  bring  about  this  desired  end. 
When  an  offense  has  been  committed  against  the  life  or 
property  of  the  people  of  a  community  it  is  sooner  or 
later  sure  to  be  discovered  and  the  offender  punished.  So 
jealous  is  the  national  government  of  its  interests  that 
damage  done  to  life  or  property  of  an  American  citizen 
by  the  representatives  of  another  country  may  become 
a  sufficient  cause  for  declaration  of  war.  The  entire  power 
of  the  nation  stands  back  of  each  individual  in  his  desire 


PROTECTION  OF  LIFE  AND  PROPERTY  117 

to  protect  his  own  life  and  property.  To  be  a  worthy 
citizen  of  this  great  nation  each  one  of  us  must  learn  to 
respect  the  rights  and  privileges  of  our  fellows.  We  must 
not  wilfully  or  by  any  act  of  carelessness  permit  ourselves 
to  be  a  partner  in  any  act  which  may  result  in  the  destruc- 
tion of  life  or  property.  To  do  so  is  to  brand  one's  self 
as  an  undesirable  citizen,  and  as  one  unworthy  of  the 
name  of  American. 

The  good  citizen  will  not  by  any  foolish  action  place 
himself  or  herself  in  danger  of  life  or  limb.  Playing  in 
the  streets,  carelessly  dashing  across  the  street  without 
taking  the  precaution  to  see  if  there  are  any  cars  or  other 
vehicles  coming,  stealing  rides  on  moving  vehicles,  these 
and  many  other  things  which  boys  and  girls  frequently 
do,  are  causes  of  many  accidents.  "  But,"  you  may  say, 
"  if  I  am  injured  it  is  no  one's  business.  No  one  is  hurt 
but  myself."  If  you  stop  for  a  moment  to  think  about 
it,  however,  you  will  see  that  this  position  is  false.  Of 
course,  there  would  be  the  suffering  and  distress  which  an 
accident  to  us  would  cause  in  our  own  homes.  But  more 
than  this,  every  accident  is  costly  to  the  community.  A 
crippled  man  or  woman  may  become  a  drawback  to  the 
community.  It  is  possible  to  be  so  injured  that  one  will  be 
dependent  on  others  all  the  rest  of  his  life.  This  means 
that  instead  of  another  producer  working  for  the  com- 
munity and  helping  it  attain  its  desires  there  is  a  dependent 
who  becomes  a  burden  on  the  community.  Even  if  death 
should  result  there  is  the  loss  to  the  community  of  all  the 
training  and  effort  which  the  community  has  put  forth 
to  make  another  good  citizen. 


Il8         THE   ELEMENTS  OF   COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

If  we  would  be  worthy  of  our  country  we  must  play 
fair.  It  has  always  been  the  American  spirit  to  stand  for 
the  square  deal  for  each  and  every  member  of  the  com- 
munity. Community  life  is  like  a  great  game.  Each 
one  of  us  has  his  or  her  place  on  the  team.  If  we  are  to 
accomplish  most  we  must  work  together  that  the  welfare 
of  all  may  result.  We  will  find  that  as  we  take  care  that 
the  interest  of  the  other  fellow  is  preserved  our  own  best 
interests  will  be  obtained. 


CHAPTER    IX 

EDUCATION 

Education  is  a  subject  about  which  each  one  feels  that 
he  knows  a  great  deal.  We  have  spent  at  least  six  or  seven 
years  of  our  lives  in  school  getting-  an  education,  and  some 
of  us  are  hoping  to  be  able  to  spend  quite  a  number  more. 
Surely  we  are  qualified  to  talk  about  such  a  subject.  We 
look  around  us  and  we  see  the  very  familiar  sights  of  the 
classroom.  There  are  the  blackboards,  the  maps,  and  the 
rest  of  the  school  furniture.  Probably  over  by  one  of  the 
walls  there  is  a  small  collection  of  books  which  we  call 
the  class  library.  Then,  too,  there  are  our  own  books,  quite 
a  number  of  them,  which  we  use  day  after  day.  The  build- 
ing, too,  we  are  quite  familiar  with.  There  are  the  class- 
rooms of  the  other  teachers  in  which  we  may  have  spent 
past  terms.  There  is  the  office  and  the  principal,  and  the 
playground,  and  possibly  the  gymnasium,  swimming  pool, 
and  garden. 

What  School  Is  For.  —  Why  have  we  been  spending 
our  time  here  and  why  do  some  of  us  hope  to  be  able  to  go 
on  studying?  As  little  children  we  may  have  come  be- 
cause we  were  brought  to  school  by  our  parents.  Most 
of  us  never  even  thought,  or  if  we  did,  quickly  forgot,  that 
we  may  have  had  to  come.  There  may  have  been  boys 
and  girls  who  came  because  the  law  required  it  and  were 

119 


120         THE  ELEMENTS  OF  COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

only  waiting  until  they  reached  the  age  and  grade  at  which 
they  could  leave.  But  most  of  us  have  enjoyed  going  to 
school.  All  the  other  boys  and  girls  were  there,  and  there 
would  have  been  no  fun  in  being  on  the  streets  while  the 
others  were  in  school.  Then,  too,  there  have  been  the  games 
and  many  other  things  which  have  made  the  school  a  rather 
interesting  place  after  all.  Most  boys  and  girls  whose 
privilege  it  is  to  attend  a  good  school  leave  it  with  regret ; 
or  if  they  do  not  feel  sorry  when  they  leave,  after  they 
have  tried  business  life  for  a  while,  they  soon  begin  to  wish 
that  they  were  back  with  their  former  comrades.  And 
then  they  find  that  they  are  handicapped  like  a  runner  in 
a  race.  If  they  are  ambitious  to  make  something  worth 
while  out  of  themselves  it  hurts  to  see  another  who  has 
had  the  advantage  of  more  education  get  the  better  job 
when  they  have  been  working  much  longer. 

Increasing  Earning  Power.  —  It  is  a  well-known  fact 
that  an  education  has  a  high  market  value  in  the  busi- 
ness market.  A  short  time  ago  the  national  government, 
which  is  always  interested  in  finding  out  what  is  best 
for  its  citizens,  made  a  very  careful  study  of  the  value 
of  an  education.  It  proved  very  definitely  that  every 
additional  year  spent  in  school  made  for  increased  earn- 
ing power. 

Employers  have  learned  that  when  they  have  a  posi- 
tion to  be  filled  the  applicant  who  has  had  the  most  edu- 
cation, other  things  being  equal,  is  the  best  person  for 
the  job.  Again  and  again  young  men  and  women  see 
others  who  have  made  better  use  of  their  time  at  school 


EDUCATION  121 

step  over  their  heads  into  the  good  paying  positions.  When 
such  young  people  with  ambition  and  really  in  earnest 
to  succeed  see  such  things  they  often  start  out  to  try  to  make 
up  their  deficiencies  by  attending  night  school.  It  is  of 
course  possible  to  get  a  very  fine  education  while  one  is 
engaged  in  business,  and  some  of  our  most  successful  men 
and  women  have  advanced  themselves  in  this  way.  But 
it  is  much  harder  than  to  get  the  education  when  one  does 
not  at  the  same  time  have  to  earn  his  own  living.  The  boy 
or  girl  that  is  anxious  to  make  a  success  out  of  life  will 
turn  a  deaf  ear  to  the  tales  of  those  already  at  work  who 
are  anxious  to  have  others  get  caught  in  the  same  fix  as 
themselves.  Every  hour  spent  in  school  may  be  made  to 
bring  rich  returns  if  we  are  willing  to  profit  by  our  oppor- 
tunity. 

Enjoyment.  —  Another  result  of  education  is  that  it 
enables  us  to  get  greater  pleasure  out  of  life.  Think  of 
the  many  books  which  we  have  read,  the  story-books  filled 
with  tales  of  adventure,  the  books  of  travel  and  explora- 
tion. Some  of  these  have  been  a  source  of  much  pleasure 
to  us.  It  was  our  ability  to  read  which  made  it  possible 
to  have  all  this  pleasure.  In  the  middle  ages,  when  there 
were  no  free  schools,  the  people  who  could  read  were  very 
few  indeed.  When  a  man  wanted  to  write  a  letter  or  a 
bill  he  secured  the  services  of  a  scribe  whom  he  paid  to 
write  for  him.  If  he  received  a  letter  it  was  necessary  to 
hunt  up  some  one  who  could  read  it  to  him.  It  is  true 
that  We  might  have  learned  to  read  even  if  there  had 
been   no   school,  but   the   chance   is   that  we  would  not. 


122         THE   ELEMENTS  OF   COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

There  are  many  things,  too,  which  through  study  we  learn 
to  enjoy  while  in  school  —  music,  art,  poetry,  and  others. 
The  school  interprets  them  to  us.  This  does  not  mean 
that  the  school  necessarily  gives  courses  in  all  of  these  things, 
although  many  schools  do,  but  that  we  get  a  background 
in  school  which  enables  us  to  interpret  and  appreciate  that 
which  is  beautiful. 

Citizenship.  —  There  is  still  another  reason  why  we  go 
to  school.  We  have  seen  that  our  country  is  "  Many 
in  One."  It  is  a  democracy  in  which  each  and  every  one 
is  an  important  member.  The  very  existence  of  our  coun- 
try as  a  democracy  is  dependent  upon  the  ability  of  the 
members  of  the  community  to  think  intelligently  and  act 
wisely  in  matters  which  concern  the  welfare  of  the  city, 
state,  or  nation.  It  is  a  government  "  of  the  people,  by 
the  people,  for  the  people."  It  is  a  land  of  free  men  and 
women.  One  of  the  principal  doctrines  underlying  the 
nation  is  that  of  Liberty.  It  was  because  of  our  belief 
in  these  things  and  our  hatred  of  all  oppression  that  we 
took  up  arms  against  German  autocracy  and  cruelty. 
To  be  sure  we  have  our  leaders,  our  President,  members  of 
Congress,  judges,  governors,  legislators,  mayors,  and  so 
forth,  but  they  are  merely  the  representatives  of  the  people. 
It  is  the  will  of  the  people  which  they  represent.  When 
they  speak,  it  is  as  if  the  people  of  the  entire  nation  were 
speaking  through  them.  How  important  it  is  that  people 
who  are  so  governed  be  intelligent,  well-educated  people. 
A  democracy  can  exist  only  among  such  a  people.' 


EDUCATION 


123 


THE  PUBLIC   SCHOOLS 

It  is  because  education  is  necessary  to  the  continued 
prosperity  of  the  nation  and  to  its  very  existence  as  a 
democracy,  that  the  citizens  of  our  country  willingly 
tax  themselves  in  order  that  the  boys  and  girls  may  be 
educated.     The  cost  of  education  is  enormous  and  is  con- 


The  Schools  are  at  Work  Developing  the  Young  Citizen 

tinually  growing,  but  it  is  looked  upon  as  one  of  the  best 
investments  which  the  nation  can  make.  The  schools  are 
at  work  developing  the  young  citizen  who  shall  to-morrow 
take  up  the  responsibilities  of  adult  citizenship.  In  so  far 
as  the  school  trains  well  it  is  one  of  the  greatest  agencies 
working  for  the  betterment  of  the  citizen  and  of  the  nation. 

Compulsory   Education.  —  Education   is   known   to   be 
of  such  great  importance  in  the  development  of  citizen- 


124         THE  ELEMENTS  OF  COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

ship  that  our  communities  are  not  willing  to  allow  each 
individual  to  decide  for  himself  just  how  much  education 
he  shall  receive.  Parents  because  of  ignorance  or  greed 
might  remove  their  children  from  school  before  the  real 
work  of  the  school  had  been  accomplished.  Others  might 
yield  to  the  demands  of  their  boys  and  girls,  who  were  either 
too  lazy  or  indifferent,  and  permit  them  to  leave  school  at 
an  early  age.  In  order  that  every  one  in  the  community 
might  have  an  equal  opportunity  as  far  as  the  rudiments 
of  learning  are  concerned,  those  things  which  every  citizen 
to  be  a  good  citizen  should  possess,  education  has  been 
made  compulsory  up  to  a  certain  age.  The  tendency  at 
the  present  time  is  to  bring  this  age  up  to  at  least  sixteen 
years.  By  doing  so  boys  and  girls  will  be  kept  out  of  indus- 
try at  an  age  at  which  harm  might  result  from  improper  em- 
ployment. This  is  another  illustration  of  the  interest  of  the 
many  in  the  one,  of  the  whole  community  in  the  welfare 
of  the  individual.  It  will  not  permit  us  to  do  just  as  we 
please,  because  the  experience  of  the  group  has  shown 
that  certain  action  is  likely  to  prove  harmful  and  other 
action  to  prove  beneficial. 

Continuation  Schools.  —  Before  the  present  laws  regu- 
lating the  employment  of  children  in  industry  and  pre- 
scribing certain  minimum  requirements  in  education  were 
passed  many  deplorable  conditions  existed.  Boys  and 
girls  were  put  out  to  work  at  a  very  early  age.  Because  of 
their  extreme  youth  and  inexperience  they  were  unable 
to  take  care  of  their  own  interests.  They  were  paid  the 
smallest  possible  salaries,  and  worked  for  very  long  hours 


EDUCATION  125 

and  under  the  most  unsanitary  and  even  dangerous  con- 
ditions. Very  small  children  could  be  found  working 
in  mills  and  factories  from  early  morning  until  late  at 
night.  Underpaid,  often  underfed,  and  without  the  op- 
portunity for  play  which  is  the  right  of  every  boy  and  girl, 
they  often  sickened  and  died.  If  we  knew  the  conditions 
which  existed  and  the  story  of  the  long  hard  fight  which 
groups  of  unselfish,  noble-minded  men  and  women  have 
made  to  prevent  such  things,  we  would  appreciate  even  more 
than  we  do  our  fine  schools  and  the  laws  which  protect 
us.  To-day  state  laws  prohibit  the  employment  of  chil- 
dren under  certain  ages  in  industry.  In  many  states  it 
is  necessary,  if  a  child  leaves  school  at  the  minimum  work- 
ing age,  that  at  least  one  day  a  week  be  given  over  to  school 
attendance.  The  time  lost  from  work  by  attending  such 
classes  is  not  deducted  from  the  salaries.  The  schools 
which  such  pupils  attend  are  known  as  continuation  schools. 
Here  the  boys  and  girls  may  learn  much  that  will  help  them 
advance  in  their  place  of  employment.  If  they  are  am- 
bitious there  is  the  opportunity  of  going  on  with  their 
studies  where  they  left  off,  and  possibly,  of  completing 
their  education  by  following  up  this  continuation  school 
work  with    night  school. 

The  Elementary  Schools.  —  We  shall  not  attempt  to 
discuss  the  elementary  school  since  we  are  all  familiar  with 
it.  That  is  at  least  the  first  six  years.  It  is  the  place 
in  the  educational  system  where  we  get  hold  of  the  tools 
of  learning  and  find  out  how  to  handle  them.  Beside  teach- 
ing us  how  to  read  and  write,  and  do  the  simpler  arith- 


126         THE   ELEMENTS  OF   COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

metical  problems,  it  should  have  taught  us  how  to  study. 
We  should  be  at  least  beginning  to  arrive  at  the  point 
where  we  understand  how  to  find  out  what  we  want  from 
the  printed  page.  Some  of  us  may  have  been  fortunate 
enough  to  have  had  the  advantage  of  the  training  which  the 
kindergarten  gives  before  we  entered  the  first  grade  of 
school.  If  we  have  we  will  know  how  helpful  this  training 
was  in  aiding  us  to  form  habits  of  work  and  in  making 
our  first  days  in  school  much  easier.  If  we  have  not  had 
such  a  chance  we  should  see  that  our  younger  brothers 
and  sisters  who  have  not  started  in  school  have  the  oppor- 
tunity which  we  missed. 

Junior  High  Schools.  —  The  seventh,  eighth,  and  ninth 
years  of  school  are  now  being  considered  as  representing  a 
separate  part  of  school  life.  More  and  more  we  are  finding 
them  grouped  together  under  the  title  of  Junior  High 
School.  It  is  made  up  of  the  boys  and  girls  who  have 
gotten  hold  of  the  tools  of  learning  and  know  how  to  make 
use  of  them.  These  boys  and  girls,  being  older  and  stronger 
for  the  most  part,  enjoy  different  games  and  activities  than 
the  younger  children.  It  is  well  for  them  to  have  a  school 
all  of  their  own  where  they  may  work  and  play  together 
as  suits  their  age.  Then  too  the  work  can  be  different 
from  the  elementary  school  work.  Being  more  mature 
they  are  able  to  take  up  more  advanced  subjects  and  in 
a  different  way.  If  they  are  going  to  study  a  foreign 
language,  Spanish  or  French  for  example,  this  is  the  proper 
time  to  begin  that  study.  If  the  method  of  teaching  is 
correct,  they  will  learn  with  rapidity  and  be  able  through 


EDUCATION  127 

persistent  effort  to  speak  the  language.  The  value  of  being 
able  to  speak  a  foreign  tongue  is  every  day  becoming  more 
and  more  evident.  The  Junior  High  School  can  be  equipped 
with  laboratories  for  special  activities  —  such  as  manual 
training,  domestic  science,  and  the  natural  sciences,  where 
we  can  learn  at  first  hand.  Then,  too,  the  gap  which  has 
always  existed  between  the  elementary  and  the  high  school 
will  be  done  away  with. 

Senior  High  Schools.  —  Beyond  the  Junior  High  School 
and  beckoning  the  ambitious  boy  and  girl  lies  the  Senior 
High  School.  What  wonderful  days  are  ahead  of  the  boy 
or  girl  who  is  so  fortunate  as  to  be  able  to  attend.  Even 
if  one  is  sure  that  he  is  not  going  to  be  able  to  finish  all 
the  work  it  would  be  very  much  worth  while  to  attend  even 
for  a  short  time.  Red-blooded  boys  and  girls  give  up  their 
high  school  work  with  deepest  regret.  It  is  as  if  we  had 
reached  the  place  for  which  our  earlier  training  had  been 
a  preparation.  To  the  boy  or  girl  who  has  had  a  high 
school  education  all  the  doors  of  opportunity  lie  open. 
Deprived  of  it  many  a  door  is  closed,  and  can  only  be 
opened  by  the  hardest  possible  kind  of  work,  which  only 
the  bravest  are  willing  to  undertake. 

And  so  our  communities  have  planned  for  us  a  wonderful 
treat.  These  great  schools  are  maintained  at  the  expense 
of  millions  of  dollars.  They  have  the  best  trained  teachers 
it  is  possible  to  get.  And  they  are  free.  How  men  like 
Lincoln  would  have  rejoiced  if  they  could  have  had  the  op- 
portunity of  but  half  a  year  in  one  of  our  large  schools. 
They  achieved  success  not  because  of  their  lack  of  a  good 


128         THE  ELEMENTS  OF   COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

school  education  but  in  spite  of  it.  They  are  the  type 
who  to-day  would  be  leaders  of  their  classes,  or  if  deprived 
of  day  school  by  necessity  of  work,  we  would  find  them 
crowding  our  night  schools  trying  to  make  up  what  they 
had  lost. 

Night  Schools.  —  In  addition  to  the  day  schools,  which 
we  might  call  the  regular  schools,  there  are  the  night 
schools,  elementary  and  high.  These  afford  an  opportunity 
to  the  ones  who  have  not  been  able  for  some  reason  or  other 
to  finish  their  day  school  education.  Here  the  foreigner 
anxious  to  speak  the  language  of  the  country  of  his  adoption 
receives  free  instruction.  At  the  same  time  he  is  taught 
the  lessons  which  will  serve  to  prepare  him  to  become  a 
good,  law-abiding  citizen  when  he  takes  out  his  naturaliza- 
tion papers.  Here,  too,  we  find  the  young  men  and  women 
who  because  of  pressure  of  circumstance  or  lack  of  interest 
were  unable  to  finish  the  elementary  or  high  school,  hard 
at  work  to  make  up  their  deficiencies.  If  we  were  to  talk 
with  them  we  would  find  that  many  had  neglected  op- 
portunities when  they  were  younger  and  were  now  trying 
to  make  up  for  that  which  they  had  lost. 

Teacher  Training.  —  All  of  these  schools  require 
teachers.  Being  a  teacher  to-day  is  no  easy  matter.  To 
be  one  a  good  education  is  the  first  requirement,  usually  at 
least  a  high  school  education.  Then  there  must  be  pro- 
fessional training.  Teaching  has  become  recognized  as 
one  of  the  learned  professions  and  is  setting  higher  and 
higher  requirements  for  those  who  would  enter  it.  Many  of 
our  large  cities  maintain  their  own  teacher-training  schools 


EDUCATION  129 

or    colleges.     Teachers    are    also    trained    in    the    various 
state  normal  schools,  and  also  by  the  colleges. 

Local  Organization.  —  The  public  educational  systems  of 
our  country  are  supported  by  taxation  of  the  people  of  the 
community  and  are  governed  by  authorities  represent- 
ing the  people.  In  the  cities  and  larger  towns  we  usually 
find  a  board  of  education  in  direct  charge  of  the  manage- 
ment of  the  schools.  The  members  of  the  board  are  either 
elected  or  appointed  to  their  positions.  They  attend  to 
the  business  of  raising  the  funds  necessary  for  the  mainte- 
nance of  the  schools,  and  the  making  of  the  laws  which 
govern  their  operation.  The  administration  of  the  edu- 
cational program  and  the  direction  of  instruction  is,  how- 
ever, left  in  the  hands  of  paid  experts,  men  and  women  who 
have  made  the  study  of  education  their  life  work  and  who 
have  had  wide  experience  as  teachers.  The  administrative 
head  of  the  schools  is  usually  known  as  the  superintendent 
of  instruction.  He  has  a  number  of  assistant  superin- 
tendents, among  whom  the  work  of  administering  and 
supervising  the  schools  is  divided.  Each  school  is  under 
the  direction  of  a  principal  who  is  responsible  for  seeing 
that  his  teachers  interpret  properly  the  courses  of  study 
and  faithfully  execute  their  various  duties.  In  country 
districts  we  find  a  superintendent  usually  in  charge  of 
the  work  in  a  county.  The  schools  being  small  in  many 
cases  we  will  find  that  the  principal  assists  in  the  work 
of  instruction. 

The  State.  —  The  state  is  also  very  much  interested 
in  the  work  of  the  schools.     In  fact  the  laws  directing  the 


130         THE  ELEMENTS  OF   COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

organization  of  the  systems  of  education  within  a  state 
are  made  by  the  representatives  of  the  people  in  the  state 
legislature.  The  state  prescribes  what  shall  constitute 
the  minimum  course  of  study  for  all  the  schools  in  the  state. 
It  appropriates  money  to  assist  the  various  communities 
maintain  a  fair  standard  of  schools.  It  assists  in  the 
payment  of  the  salaries  of  teachers.  It  has  in  many  in- 
stances taken  over  the  problem  of  administering  the  pen- 
sion system  which  protects  the  teachers  in  old  age.  All 
of  this  work  is  under  the  control  of  the  state  board  of 
education.  Directly  responsible  for  administering  the 
law  is  a  state  superintendent  of  education.  The  part 
which  the  state  is  taking  in  education  is  becoming  more 
and  more  important.  In  addition  to  this  the  state  main- 
tains the  state  Normal  Schools  to  which  reference  has  al- 
ready been  made.  It  is  here  that  the  teachers  for  the 
schools  in  the  smaller  cities  and  country  districts  are  trained. 

The  Nation.  —  The  national  community,  you  may  be 
sure,  is  vitally  concerned  with  the  whole  educational  prob- 
lem of  the  country.  At  the  present  time,  however,  it  exer- 
cises very  little  control  over  the  work  of  education  in  the 
states.  It  does  provide  for  government  funds  to  be  used 
for  certain  definite  purposes  in  the  states,  provided  certain 
conditions  laid  down  by  the  government  are  met.  The 
National  Bureau  of  Education  is  a  part  of  the  Department 
of  the  Interior.  The  United  States  Commissioner  of  Educa- 
tion is  in  charge  of  this  Bureau.  It  acts  as  a  sort  of 
clearing  house  for  educational  information.  It  makes  a 
study  of  the  successful  features  of  the  various  local  sys- 


EDUCATION  131 

terns  of  education  and  then  publishes  the  results  of  its 
findings  so  that  other  communities  may  profit  by  the 
information.  In  addition  to  this  the  Bureau  is  in  charge 
of  the  educational  work  among  the  Eskimos  in  Alaska. 
It  is  teaching  them  farming,  cooking,  sewing,  and  hygiene. 
The  examining  of  the  soldiers  in  the  various  Army  camps 
resulted  in  the  discovery  of  a  surprising  amount  of  illit- 
eracy, that  is,  inability  to  read  and  write.  Conditions 
in  this  respect  were  found  to  be  worse  than  indicated 
by  the  census  reports.  This  condition  is  so  wide-spread 
as  to  present  a  very  serious  problem  to  our  country.  Such 
people  are  easily  made  the  tools  of  unscrupulous  men. 
They  represent  a  real  danger  to  our  democratic  govern- 
ment. This  condition  will  probably  only  be  satisfactorily 
remedied  when  there  is  a  closer  relationship  between  the 
national  and  state  systems  of  education.  Some  day,  in- 
stead of  having  a  Commissioner  of  Education  at  the  head  of 
a  Bureau,  we  will  have  a  member  of  the  President's  cabi- 
net whose  sole  duty  it  will  be  to  look  after  the  educational 
problems  of  the  country.  When  we  have  added  this 
national  support  to  local  systems  we  will  be  another  step 
on  the  way  to  solving  some  of  our  educational  problems. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  FURTHER   STUDY  AND   DISCUSSION 

1.  What  subjects  have  you  studied  in  school  which  you  believe 
will  be  helpful  to  you  in  your  later  life  ? 

2.  What  reasons  can  you  give  for  supporting  the  public  schools 
from  the  public  treasury? 

3.  What  are  the  compulsory  school  laws  of  your  state  ?    How  could 
you  justify  them  ? 

4.  Find  out  all  you  can  about  the  studies  taken  up  in  the  continu- 


132         THE   ELEMENTS  OF   COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

ation  schools  in  your  community  ?     How  do  they  differ  from  the  regular 
school  work  ? 

5.  Describe  the  organization  of  the  public  school  system  in  your 
community. 

6.  What  opportunities  are  offered  by  the  high  schools  of  your  com- 
munity? 

7.  Secure  any  available  literature  on  the  high  school  courses. 
Which  of  these  courses  would  be  most  helpful  to  you  in  the  work  which 
you  expect  to  do  when  you  leave  school  ? 

8.  What  are  the  opportunities  for  a  boy  or  girl  getting  a  high  school 
education  if  they  are  unable  to  go  to  day-school  beyond  the  eighth  school 
year?    What  are  some  of  the  difficulties? 

9.  What  advantage  will  a  boy  or  girl,  who  has  taken  a  high  school 
education  and  then  a  business  course,  have  in  a  place  of  business  over 
those  who  have  taken  the  business  course  with  only  an  elementary 
school  foundation? 

10.  Find  out  all  you  can  about  your  state  department  of  education. 
What  is  it  doing  for  your  local  system  ? 

n.  Who  is  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education  ?  What 
is  the  national  government  doing  for  the  cause  of  free  education  in  the 
United  States? 


OTHER   MEANS   OF   EDUCATION 

Colleges  and  Universities.  —  Some  of  us  may  already 
have  in  mind  what  we  want  to  do  when  we  become  men 
and  women.  It  may  be  that  we  intend  to  take  up  the 
study  of  law,  or  medicine,  or  theology,  or  some  form  of 
engineering,  or  some  form  of  business  life  such  as  account- 
ing. In  all  these  and  many  other  lines  of  endeavor  we 
shall  find  that  a  college  education  will  be  desirable. 
Many  of  our  best  medical  and  law  schools  are  requiring 
that  their  students  shall  have  completed  a  full  college 
course.  But  these  schools  are  not  a  part  of  the  great 
system  of  free  education  and  we  shall  find  that  it  will  be 


EDUCATION  133 

necessary  for  us  to  pay  in  some  way  or  other  for  our  train- 
ing in  them.  The  rewards  for  such  further  study  are,  how- 
ever, so  great  that  the  very  best  of  our  men  and  women 
have  been  willing  to  make  sacrifices  to  obtain  such  an 
education. 

Practically  all  of  our  large  colleges  and  universities 
grant  free  scholarships  to  worthy  men  and  women.  Some 
of  these  scholarships  are  to  be  won  in  competitive  examina- 
tions. Others  are  won  as  the  result  of  superior  work  in 
our  city  high  schools.  If  you  are  thinking  of  going  to 
college  and  wish  to  do  so  in  this  manner  it  is  not  too  soon 
to  begin  to  find  out  just  what  scholarships  are  available 
in  the  college  which  you  desire  to  attend  and  then  to  begin 
to  lay  your  plans  for  winning  one  of  these  scholarships. 

For  the  man  or  woman  who  is  unable  to  win  a  scholar- 
ship and  is  not  able  to  pay  there  are  still  other  ways  open. 
Many  a  student  has  worked  his  way  through  college. 
Often  these  students  do  the  very  best  work.  Can  you 
suggest  some  reasons  why? 

Schools  for  the  Blind  and  Deaf.  —  In  every  community 
there  are  usually  some  people  who  are  handicapped  by 
some  physical  disability  which  renders  getting  an  education 
particularly  difficult.  The  blind  and  the  deaf  are  especially 
handicapped.  And  yet  both  of  these  classes  of  people  if 
properly  educated  can  live  very  useful  and  happy  lives. 
The  deaf  can  be  taught  to  understand  what  is  said  by  read- 
ing the  movements  of  the  lips.  If  they  are  able  to  speak 
and  can  tell  what  we  are  saying  by  watching  us  closely 
when  we  talk,  they  can  get  along  very  well  indeed.     Some 


134         THE  ELEMENTS  OF  COMMUNITY   WELFARE 

of  them,  however,  are  also  unable  to  speak.  This  group, 
together  with  the  blind,  require  special  education  and  train- 
ing if  they  are  to  become  self-supporting.  We  will  find 
in  our  various  communities  splendid  schools  where  these 
people  are  educated.  You  would  be  especially  interested 
in  visiting  a  school  for  the  blind.  Here  you  would  find 
boys  and  girls  learning  to  read  books  printed  in  an  alphabet 
of  their  own.  They  learn  to  make  all  sorts  of  useful  articles, 
to  play  musical  instruments,  and  accomplish  many  really 
wonderful  things. 

Libraries.  —  A  very  important  part  of  our  education 
is  that  we  have  learned  to  read.  The  school  opens  up  to 
us  the  world's  great  storehouse  of  good  things  to  be  found 
on  the  printed  page.  We  acquire  an  appetite  for  books. 
But  books  are  expensive  and  we  cannot  purchase  all  of  the 
books  we  would  like  to  have.  Unlike  Lincoln,  however, 
it  is  not  necessary  for  us  to  walk  for  miles  to  borrow  a  book 
from  a  friend,  for  we  may  walk  a  few  blocks  from  our  home 
and  find  a  public  library.  Here  are  hundreds  of  shelves 
stacked  with  wonderful  books.  We  could  not  possibly 
read  them  all  if  we  were  to  spend  our  lifetime  at  it.  The 
books  are  arranged  so  as  to  make  it  very  easy  for  us  to 
find  the  book  we  want.  We  may  sit  in  a  comfortable 
chair,  in  a  light  and  quiet  room,  and  read  to  our  heart's 
content.  Or  if  we  have  a  reader's  card  we  may  take  a 
book  or  two  away  with  us  and  keep  them  at  our  homes  for 
a  number  of  days. 

The  great  free  libraries  of  our  cities  are  supported  by 
public    taxation.     They    belong    to    the    community,    the 


EDUCATION  135 

books  are  the  property  of  the  community,  and  the  libra- 
rians are  the  employees  of  the  community.  Interested 
in  the  education  of  its  citizens  beyond  that  education 
which  is  given  by  the  schools,  the  community  tries  to  edu- 
cate its  members  in  the  habit  of  using  the  library.  The 
old  idea  that  a  library  was  a  place  where  books  were  col- 
lected and  stored  has  passed  away.  To-day  a  library 
is  a  place  where  books  are  used  and  circulated.  The  lec- 
tures, story  hours,  dramatics,  and  so  forth,  which  are  given 
in  our  libraries  are  to  increase  the  interest  of  the  people 
in  the  library  with  a  view  to  having  the  books  which  are 
there  more  widely  circulated. 

Pupils  in  our  schools  to-day  need  the  public  library 
more  than  ever  before.  The  newer  methods  of  instruction 
which  are  being  introduced  into  our  schools  require  that 
frequent  reference  be  made  to  the  library.  The  librarian 
should  be  considered  as  an  auxiliary  teacher  to  the  school. 
She  will  be  able  to  help  us  find  the  books  which  we  are 
after  and  instruct  us  in  the  best  and  quickest  methods 
of  locating  the  information  for  which  we  are  hunting.  In 
some  school  systems  the  library  is  looked  upon  as  a  real 
part  of  the  school  and  certain  periods  each  week  are  set 
apart  for  the  use  of  the  library  by  the  boys  and  girls  of 
the  different  classes. 

Museums  and  Art  Galleries.  —  It  is  surprising  how 
poorly  informed  many  people  are  of  the  opportunities 
which  their  own  communities  offer  for  enjoyment  coupled 
with  real  education.  Many  a  citizen  is  puzzled  when  a 
stranger  asks  for  direction  to  a  certain  museum  or  art 


136 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF   COMMUNITY  WELFARE 


gallery.  In  fact  it  seems  that  some  people  are  better 
acquainted  with  such  places  in  other  cities  than  they  are 
in  their  own  towns.  Most  of  these  places  are  maintained 
in  part,  if  not  entirely,  by  funds  raised  by  taxation.  They 
are  established  so  as  to  afford  additional  opportunity 
for  the  people  to  continue  their  education.  Some  of  our 
museums  are  planned  with  a  view  to  instructing  the  business 
men  of  the  community  in  regard  to  the  conditions  and  oppor- 
tunities for  business  in  other  communities  and  countries. 


;JSV<vvj 


EggSBft 


Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art,  New  York 

The  development  of  the  great  Commercial  Museums  has 
been  for  this  purpose.  There  is  usually  a  staff  of  experts 
connected  with  the  institution  who  are  engaged  in  making 
a  study  of  the  conditions  in  other  places,  and  who  are  in 
a  position  to  tell  the  manufacturer  or  merchant  just  how 
he  should  go  about  establishing  a  new  market  here  in  this 
country  or  abroad. 

Our  Art  galleries  enable  us  to  enjoy  the  results  of  the 
work  of  the  world's  greatest  artists,  painters,  and  sculptors. 
Such  enjoyment,  while  it  is  also  a  form  of  recreation,  is 
highly  educational. 


EDUCATION  137 

Newspapers  and  Periodicals.  —  What  would  we  do 
without  our  newspapers?  Do  you  remember  how  during 
the  war  we  eagerly  scanned  the  papers  for  news  of  the 
success  of  our  army  and  their  brave  allies?  There  were 
times  when  we  could  scarcely  wait  for  a  new  edition  of 
the  paper  to  come  out.  Usually  we  do  not  give  so  much 
thought  to  our  papers.  We  find  them  at  our  front  door 
every  morning.  They  are  like  so  many  other  things ;  we 
do  not  half  appreciate  them  because  they  are  so  faithful. 
Here  we  have  the  news  of  the  happenings  of  all  the  world. 
Some  great  event  takes  place  in  London  or  Paris,  and  within 
a  few  hours  we  are  reading  about  it  in  our  homes. 
Stretched  out  all  over  the  world  like  a  great  web  the  news- 
papers through  their  correspondents  pick  up  for  us  all  the 
happenings  which  are  worth  recording  and  let  us  have 
them  in  an  incredibly  short  time.  The  telegraph,  the 
telephone,  the  ocean  cables,  and  the  wireless  flash  the 
news  from  one  end  of  the  world  to  the  other. 

Newspapers  play  an  important  part  in  the  education 
of  the  people.  Practically  every  one  who  can  read  reads 
the  newspapers,  and  some  people  read  no  books  of  any 
kind.  The  newspapers  not  only  print  the  news,  but  in 
their  interpretation  of  it  and  in  their  editorials  influence 
to  no  small  degree  public  opinion.  The  names  which  are 
so  familiar  to  us  and  which  are  on  every  tongue  to-day 
were  put  there  by  the  newspapers.  Had  the  newspapers 
refused  to  mention  the  names  of  these  people,  so  far  as  we 
are  concerned  they  would  not  exist.  The  popularity  or 
unpopularity  of  men  and  women  in  our  country  is  largely 
due  to  the  fact  that  the  newspapers  of  the  country  have  been 


EDUCATION  139 

talking  about  them  for  some  time.  As  molders  of  public 
opinion  the  newspapers  present  one  of  the  world's  most 
powerful  agents.  How  important  it  is  that  the  news  which 
they  print  be  accurate  and  true,  and  the  opinions  which 
they  express  be  wise.  There  is  a  splendid  field  of  opportu- 
nity in  the  newspaper  service  for  men  and  women  who  are 
anxious  to  do  good  patriotic  service  for  their  country. 
There  will  of  course  always  be  differences  of  opinion  in 
regard  to  any  matter  which  is  considered,  but  if  the  people 
who  are  standing  for  the  different  sides  are  broad-minded 
and  have  the  best  interests  of  the  community  and  the 
nation  at  heart,  only  good  can  result. 

Periodicals.  —  Published  at  less  frequent  intervals  are 
the  weekly  and  monthly  periodicals.  They  include  all 
classes  of  papers,  from  those  which  are  printed  with  the 
one  purpose  of  affording  recreation  and  amusement,  to 
those  which  deal  with  the  most  serious  problems  of  life. 
These  periodicals  are  to  be  found  on  the  tables  in  the  refer- 
ence rooms  or  periodical  room  of  most  of  our  libraries 
It  is  a  very  good  plan  to  look  over  some  of  these  for  articles 
bearing  on  topics  in  which  we  are  interested.  The  libra- 
rian, if  we  ask  her,  will  explain  how  to  find  articles  on  va- 
rious topics  in  back  numbers  of  these  magazines. 

Societies,  etc.  —  In  churches,  social  centers,  literary 
and  debating  societies,  and  many  other  places  we  will 
find  public  opinion  being  formed.  All  of  these  agencies 
along  with  the  advancement  of  other  objects  for  which 
they  may  stand  are  truly  educational.  Then,  too,  even 
the  more  purely  recreational  activities  of  the  community, 


140         THE  ELEMENTS  OF   COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

as  found  in  the  theaters,  concerts  and  moving  picture  shows, 
often  possess  much  that  is  of  educational  value.  If  we  are 
willing  to  learn  and  keep  our  eyes  and  ears  open,  we  will 
find  that  there  is  much  to  be  learned  and  that  there  are 
many,  many  sources  of  such  information. 

SUGGESTIONS   FOR  FURTHER   STUDY  AND   DISCUSSION 

i.  Secure  literature  telling  of  the  opportunities  offered  by  the  col- 
lege or  university  in  which  you  are  interested.  What  course  would 
you  like  to  take  ?    Why  ? 

2.  How  are  scholarships  to  these  schools  awarded? 

3.  What  professions  and  lines  of  business  require  a  college  educa- 
tion? What  advantage  would  a  college  education  be  in  any  line  of 
endeavor  ? 

4.  What  is  the  Braille  system  of  printing  ? 

5.  If  there  is  a  school  in  your  community  for  the  blind  or  the  deaf, 
you  will  find  a  visit  there  most  interesting.     Tell  the  story  of  such  a  visit. 

6.  Where  are  the  nearest  libraries  to  your  school  ?  How  may  one 
become  a  member  ?  What  help  may  we  secure  from  the  library  along 
the  lines  of  our  school  work? 

7.  Explain  how  a  museum  or  an  art  gallery  helps  in  the  education 
of  a  community. 

8.  Examine  the  editorial  page  of  a  few  important  newspapers.  What 
type  of  article  do  we  find  here  ?  What  subjects  are  dealt  with  ?  How 
may  these  influence  the  thought  of  the  community  ? 

9.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  educational  agencies  in  your  community 
other  than  the  public  schools.     How  may  these  best  be  used  ? 

INDIVIDUAL  RESPONSIBILITY 

We  often  hear  people  make  the  mistake  of  saying  that 
school  is  a  preparation  for  life.  This  is  not  the  case,  for 
school  is  life  itself.  It  is  true  that  we  are  learning  many 
things  which  will  be  of  value  to  us  in  our  after  life,  but  the 


EDUCATION  141 

life  of  the  school  is  just  as  real  as  that  of  business  or  of 
any  profession.  The  people  in  communities  in  their 
endeavor  to  achieve  the  things  which  they  desire  have 
established  certain  great  institutions.  There  is  the  home, 
for  example.  Then  there  is  the  great  industrial  society, 
including  all  forms  of  business.  Again,  there  is  the  church 
where  the  religious  desires  of  the  people  are  attained. 
Along  with  these  hand  in  hand  goes  the  school.  The 
government  or  state  as  it  is  called  is  the  great  institution 
within  which  all  others  exist.  School  is  a  real  part  of  the 
everyday  life  of  the  community.  We  are  serving  the 
community  while  we  are  engaged  in  our  lessons  or  games 
at  school  just  the  same  as  the  man  is  who  is  at  work 
on  farm,  in  office,  or  in  shop.  In  fact,  because  the  lessons 
which  we  are  learning  are  going  to  play  an  important 
part  in  all  of  our  after  life  it  may  be  that  school  is  the 
most  important  part  of  our  life.  The  workman  does 
not  count  it  time  lost  when  he  stops  to  sharpen  his  tool 
for  he  is  able  to  work  much  faster  and  better  .because 
of  the  seeming  waste  of  time. 

If  we  see  a  man  loafing  on  his  job  we  say  he  is  a  poor 
workman.  If  he  persists  in  so  doing  he  is  a  waster  and  a 
drag  on  the  community.  We  do  not  count  such  a  man  a 
good  citizen.  The  boy  or  girl  who  is  a  time  waster  is  not 
in  the  true  sense  of  the  term  a  good  citizen.  To  trifle  away 
one's  time  in  school  and  waste  not  only  our  own  time  but 
the  time  and  money  of  the  community  which  is  paying  for 
our  education,  is  the  act  of  a  slacker.  We  may  not  have 
thought  of  it  in  just  this  light  before.  Remember  always 
that  community  life  means  working  together.     The  sue- 


142         THE  ELEMENTS  OF  COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

cess  of  the  community,  city,  state,  and  nation  depends 
upon  the  faithfulness  of  each  and  every  member  of  the 
community.  The  future  of  the  American  nation  depends 
upon  the  boys  and  girls  of  to-day.  In  so  far  as  they  strive 
to  develop  habits  of  industry  and  ideals  of  good  citizen- 
ship just  so  far  will  our  nation  to-morrow  be  greater.  The 
responsibility  is  an  individual  one  which  we  cannot  shift 
to  some  one  else's  shoulders.  How  are  we  going  to 
meet  it  ? 


CHAPTER  X 
RECREATION 

"  All  work  and  no  play  makes  Jack  a  dull  boy,"  is  an 
old,  familiar  adage.  In  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  lazy  some- 
times find  excuse  for  their  idleness  or  neglect  of  duty  be- 
hind such  words,  there  is  nevertheless  much  truth  in  the 
statement.  We  all  know  how  after  working  for  a  while 
we  begin  to  get  tired  and  are  unable  to  do  our  best. 
This  is  recognized  in  our  schools,  where  provision  is  made 
for  a  recess  or  recreation  period  in  the  middle  of  the 
session  in  order  that  we  may  come  back  to  our  work  with 
new  vigor.  Business  men  are  also  beginning  to  realize  the 
value  of  recreation  periods  in  the  working  day  and  are  mak- 
ing provision  for  the  rest  and  relaxation  of  their  employees. 
There  are  business  houses  which  have  provided  rest  and 
play  rooms  for  their  workers,  and  where  at  certain  times 
during  the  day  all  the  hands  may  go  for  a  short  period  of 
relaxation.  They  have  found  that  the  time  so  spent  more 
than  pays  for  itself  in  the  renewed  energy  which  the 
workers  have  when  they  go  back  to  their  tasks. 

The  word  recreation,  as  we  have  already  mentioned  when 
we  were  discussing  the  topic  of  health,  really  means  re-creat- 
ing. It  is  a  building  or  making  over  again  of  that  which 
has  been  worn  by  use.  In  any  activity  in  which  we  engage 
we  use  up  energy  and  bodily  tissue.     This  must  be  replaced 

143 


144         THE  ELEMENTS  OF   COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

in  time  or  exhaustion  will  set  in.  One  can  work  for  a  cer- 
tain length  of  time  and  then  nature  begins  to  demand  that 
it  have  a  chance  for  re-creating.  Much  of  this  is  done 
for  us  by  sleep.  But  if  we  were  always  to  work  until 
we  became  so  fatigued  that  we  had  to  sleep  we  would  soon 
become  dull  indeed,  and  life  itself  would  seem  scarcely 
worth  living. 

By  recreation  we  usually  mean  some  form  of  physical  or 
intellectual  enjoyment  or  pleasure.  Recreation  may  take 
the  form  of  simply  changing  the  activity  in  which  we  have 
been  engaged  and  still  accomplish  the  necessary  rebuilding. 
Just  to  stop  working  and  do  nothing  is  not  recreation. 
In  fact  loafing  except  to  lazy  people,  is  one  of  the  hardest 
kinds  of  work.  We  usually  find  our  pleasure  in  some  other 
line  of  activity  than  that  which  constitutes  our  vocation  or 
business.  To  a  teacher  in  the  gymnasium  it  would  hardly  be 
recreation  to  spend  his  off  hours  in  exercising  on  the  bars. 
This  is  the  work  which  he  is  doing  all  day.  He  might 
find  his  greatest  pleasure  in  getting  off  somewhere  with  a 
book.  The  tired  business  man,  however,  will  be  able  to 
enjoy  an  hour  in  the  gymnasium  and  leave  refreshed  and 
strengthened.  Real  recreation  consists,  at  least  in  part,  in 
doing  something  which  is  pleasurable  and  at  the  same 
time  is  healthful. 

In  the  past  few  years  there  has  been  a  gradual  shortening 
of  the  working  day.  The  old  working  day  of  twelve  or 
fourteen  hours  left  little  opportunity  for  any  form  of  recrea- 
tion. By  the  time  a  man  had  finished  his  day's  task  he 
was  worn  out  and  nothing  but  sleep  had  any  recreational 
value.     The   shorter   working   day   means   more  time  for 


RECREATION  145 

recreation.  Unless,  however,  there  are  facilities  for  using 
this  time  properly  it  is  likely  not  to  be  spent  in  recreation 
but  in  loafing.  And  not  only  must  there  be  the  facilities 
for  recreation,  but  we  must  know  what  these  facilities  are 
and  how  to  make  use  of  them.  Using  the  recreational 
facilities  of  a  community  is  largely  a  matter  of  habit. 
Once  we  have  started  to  spend  a  part  of  our  spare  time 
at  certain  sports  and  games  we  are  likely  to  continue  to 
do  so. 

The  problem  of  recreation  is  a  particularly  difficult  one 
in  our  large  cities.  In  the  country  districts,  where  most  of 
the  work  done  during  the  day  is  physical  and  done  out-of- 
doors,  it  is  not  so  important  that  physical  recreation  be  pro- 
vided. Tired  with  the  work  of  the  day  the  farmer  can  find 
pleasure  in  paper  or  book.  The  city  man  on  the  other 
hand  may  have  spent  the  day  poring  over  books  in  his 
office,  or  if  engaged  in  some  physical  activity,  it  may  have 
been  indoors  in  the  mill  or  factory.  It  is  important  for 
health  that  such  men  have  an  opportunity  to  get  exercise 
in  the  open  air.  The  closely  built  up  conditions  of  our 
cities  make  this  almost  impossible,  unless  one  considers 
that  walking  the  streets  is  a  sufficient  form  of  recreation. 
Providing  proper  and  adequate  recreational  facilities  for  its 
citizens  becomes,  therefore,  a  problem  which  the  community 
must  face.  Let  us  consider  a  few  of  the  things  which  the 
average  community  has  undertaken  to  provide. 

PHYSICAL  RECREATION 

Playgrounds  and  Athletic  Fields.  —  It  is  a  common 
thing  to  see  children  playing  in  the  streets.     Frequently 


146         THE  ELEMENTS  OF   COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

they  are  so  young  that  they  are  just  able  to  toddle  around. 
Here  they  are,  boys  and  girls,  large  and  small.  If  they  are 
in  a  quiet  section  of  the  city  everything  seems  to  go  well 
until  an  automobile  comes  dashing  around  the  corner.  If 
there  are  trolleys  passing,  however,  and  much  traffic  in  the 
street,  we  can  see  at  a  glance  that  these  children  are  in  dan- 
ger. Every  day  our  papers  tell  of  some  one  who  has  been 
struck  down  by  an  automobile  or  run  over  by  a  trolley  car. 
It  is  a  sad  price  to  pay  for  the  privilege  of  playing.  And  yet 
it  is  the  right  of  every  boy  and  girl  to  play.  Not  only  does 
it  make  for  stronger  and  more  healthy  bodies,  but  it  is  also 
a  valuable  part  of  education.  Boys  and  girls  must  and 
will  play,  and  if  there  is  no  better  place  available  they  will 
play  in  the  streets  in  spite  of  all  the  dangers  and  of  all  the 
warnings  which  may  be  given. 

School  Playgrounds.  —  Sometimes  we  pass  a  school 
building  with  a  fine  large  yard.  The  school  day  is  over, 
the  teachers  have  gone  home,  the  yard  is  deserted,  for  the 
children  have  been  put  out  and  the  gates  have  been  locked. 
And  out  in  the  street  are  the  children.  This  condition 
fortunately  does  not  hold  good  in  so  very  many  places  to- 
day. The  yards  of  our  schools  have  been  recognized  as 
furnishing  very  good  places  where  the  children  may  play. 
In  many  cities  we  find  that  as  soon  as  the  day's  work  in  the 
classroom  is  done  the  school  yard  is  opened,  and  there,  under 
the  direction  of  a  competent  playground  teacher,  the  boys 
and  girls  play  in  safety.  The  children  are  accustomed  to 
coming  to  the  school.  It  is  near  their  homes.  And  if  a 
playground  is  opened  there  is  usually  no  scarcity  of  players. 


RECREATION  147 

Then,  too,  the  play  apparatus  of  the  school,  the  giant  strides, 
the  swings,  the  ladders  and  bars,  the  sand  pile,  are  all  avail- 
able. There  are  basket  ball,  hand  ball,  captain  ball,  dodge 
ball,  and  all  sorts  of  games  going  on.  What  a  happy  time 
for  every  one !  And  on  Saturdays  and  through  the  long 
holidays  the  children  of  the  neighborhood  and  even  the 
adults  find  in  the  school  yard  a  place  for  rest  and  recreation. 

Community  Playgrounds.  —  The  school  yards,  however, 
are  seldom  sufficiently  large  to  permit  all  the  games  which 
we  desire  to  play.  To  make  up  for  this  difficulty  we  find 
scattered  here  and  there  through  our  large  cities  playgrounds 
where  such  sports  as  baseball,  football,  and  tennis  may  be 
enjoyed.  In  the  new  sections  of  a  city,  where  the  land 
has  not  as  yet  been  built  upon,  we  find  that  tracts  of 
land  have  been  set  aside  so  that  when  the  houses  come  there 
will  be  a  special  place  for  the  playground.  In  the  built-up 
sections,  however,  playgrounds  have  been  made  by  tearing 
down  old  buildings.  Philadelphia  got  rid  of  a  .number  of 
blocks  of  very  undesirable  old  houses  which  had  become  a 
center  for  crime  and  disease  by  tearing  them  down  and  mak- 
ing the  space  over  into  a  playground.  It  is  well  when  pos- 
sible to  have  the  public  playground  beside  the  schoolhouse. 
When  this  is  done  the  children  of  the  school  have  much 
better  playgrounds  for  their  recess  periods*  the  expense  of 
providing  both  a  school  yard  and  a  playground  is  done  away 
with,  and  the  facilities  of  the  school  can  be  used  to  supple- 
ment those  of  the  playground. 

The  playgrounds  are  usually  much  better  adapted  for 
play  than  the  average  school  yard.     The  ground  is  not 


RECREATION  149 

cemented,  so  that  there  is  less  likelihood  of  injury  in  case 
of  a  fall.  The  extent  of  the  grounds  makes  possible  the 
playing  of  games  such  as  baseball  without  robbing  the  other 
children  of  their  play  space  and  with  less  probability  of  in- 
jury. The  playgrounds  are  better  equipped  with  play 
apparatus.  The  wading  pool  with  its  near-by  covered 
pavilion  is  of  especial  delight  to  the  little  folk.  While  they 
play  in  the  sand  or  wade  in  the  water  parents  or  nurses 
may  rest  in  the  shade  of  the  cool  pavilion. 

Recreation  Centers.  —  In  connection  with  some  of  our 
playgrounds  splendid  buildings  have  been  erected.  These 
contain  gymnasiums  fully  equipped  ;  game  rooms  where 
all  sorts  of  games  may  be  enjoyed  ;  bowling  alleys ;  shuffle 
boards ;  club  rooms ;  reading  rooms ;  auditorium  where 
neighborhood  meetings  may  be  held.  Close  by  will  be 
the  swimming  pool.  At  such  a  center  during  winter  or 
summer  we  shall  always  be  sure  to  find  plenty  of  people. 
During  the  day  the  boys  and  girls  when  not  in  their  class- 
rooms are  making  use  of  it.  In  the  evening  the  grown  folk 
of  the  neighborhood  make  it  their  club  house.  Here  of  a 
winter's  evening  we  may  have  a  public  lecture,  a  neighbor- 
hood dance,  and  a  bowling  contest,  all  going  on  at  one  time 
in  different  parts  of  this  great  building.  It  is  truly  the 
people's  club.  It  is  provided  by  the  community  for  the 
community. 

Not  all  sections,  however,  are  so  fortunate  as  to  have 
one  of  these  community  centers  near  by.  In  such  cases, 
however,  the  public  school  building  offers  splendid  oppor- 
tunity for  the  establishment  of  a  recreation  center.     Of 


150         THE   ELEMENTS   OF   COMMUNITY   WELFARE 

course  there  are  not  the  facilities  for  all  the  things  which 
the  regular  center  offers,  but  there  are  many  opportunities 
for  having  a  good  time.  The  classrooms  or  auditorium 
may  be  used  for  lectures  and  entertainments.  In  the  play 
room  or  gymnasium  basket  ball,  or  gymnastic  work,  or 
dances  may  be  held. 

Play  Streets.  —  Where  there  are  no  public  playgrounds 
and  where  the  school  yards  are  so  small  as  to  be  of  little 
use  we  will  sometimes  find  that  a  certain  street  has  been 
set  apart  as  a  play  street.  During  certain  hours  of  the 
day  the  street  is  roped  off  so  that  automobiles  and  wagons 
may  not  enter.  A  teacher  is  provided  who  sees  that  such 
apparatus  as  can  be  provided  is  at  hand  and  there  during 
the  play  hours  the  boys  and  girls  who  have  no  regular  play- 
ground enjoy  themselves  to  their  heart's  content.  Of  course 
there  can  be  no  regular  baseball  games  because  of  the  fear 
of  breaking  windows.  There  are  basket-balls,  however, 
and  ropes,  and  possibly  a  sand  pile  and  a  sliding  board,  so 
you  see  that  there  is  still  a  chance  for  these  children  to 
have  a  very  good  time. 

Swimming  Pools.  —  One  of  the  most  popular  places  in 
the  city  during  the  hot  summer  days  is  the  swimming  pool. 
Sometimes  we  will  find  it  at  the  recreation  center,  some- 
times just  the  swimming  pool  by  itself.  So  great  is  the 
demand  for  use  of  these  pools  that  the  time  which  any  one 
may  spend  in  one  is  limited.  Outside  we  find  a  long  line 
of  boys  or  girls  waiting  their  turn  to  take  a  plunge.  The 
boys  and  girls  each  have  their  special  days,  and  in  the  late 
hours  of  the  day  and  in  the  evening  we  will  find  many  of 


RECREATION  151 

the  grown  folk  anxious  to  use  it.  There  are  teachers  of 
swimming  present  who  give  lessons  free  of  charge.  Here 
one  may  learn  to  swim  and  dive.  The  advantage  of  such  a 
place  from  the  standpoint  of  health  and  cleanliness  'as  well 
as  that  of  recreation  will  readily  be  seen. 

Recreation  Piers.  —  The  river  and  harbor  fronts  of  our 
large  cities  are  very  crowded  and  very  busy  places.  There 
is  indeed  little  space  where  children  may  play.  In  order 
to  overcome  this  difficulty  playgrounds  and  recreation 
centers  have  been  established  on  the  upper  parts  of  certain 
of  the  city  piers.  Practically  all  the  games  which  are  played 
in  a  school  yard  may  be  enjoyed  here.  Then,  too,  the  cool 
breezes  from  the  river  make  it  an  especially  pleasant  place 
to  be  in  hot  weather.  The  rest  benches  in  such  a  play- 
ground are  exceedingly  popular.  Here  we  find  large  num- 
bers of  people,  especially  in  the  early  hours  of  the  evening, 
taking  advantage  of  the  opportunity  afforded  for  this  quiet 
form  of  rest  and  recreation. 

PARKS 

Squares  and  Gardens.  —  In  all  of  our  cities  we  will  find 
places  which  have  been  set  aside  as  rest  and  breathing  spaces 
for  the  people.  Some  of  these  are  no  larger  than  a  city 
block  and  they  are  sometimes  spoken  of  as  squares.  Un- 
like the  playground,  where  every  inch  of  ground  is  used 
for  play,  these  usually  contain  gardens  planted  with 
beautiful  flowers,  splendid  large  shade  trees,  pleasant 
walks,  and  comfortable  benches.  There  may  also  be  a 
fountain  with  its  little  lake  or  fish  pond.     The  advantage  of 


152         THE   ELEMENTS  OF   COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

such  places  is  that  they  are  comparatively  inexpensive  and 
may  be  scattered  throughout  a  large  city.*  They  afford  a 
resting  place  for  the  people  from  the  near-by  streets.  One 
does  not  always  care  to  have  to  go  to  the  larger  parks,  es- 
pecially if  they  are  located  at  some  distance  from  home 
and  the  trip  necessitates  the  use  of  the  cars.     Squares  such 


Bovs  at  Play  in  the  Park 

as  these  add  very  much  to  the  beauty  of  a  neighborhood, 
make  for  better  health,  and  increase  the  value  of  the  prop- 
erty. This  is  so  true  that  land  owners  are  often  willing  to 
give  small  tracts  of  land  to  the  city  for  such  parks,  knowing 
that  the  value  of  all  the  surrounding  land  will  be  increased 
by  so  doing. 

City  Parks.  —  In  addition  to  these  there  are  the  fine 
large  parks  which  we  find  in  all  of  our  cities.  Covering 
from  a  score  to  three  or  four  thousand  acres  of  land  these 


RECREATION  .  153 

parks  are  objects  of  local  pride  They  are  usually  places 
of  natural  beauty  which  are  kept  as  the  chief  playground 
and  recreation  center  of  the  city.  Here  in  the  summer  we 
find  the  merry  picnickers  playing  through  the  entire  day. 
In  the  early  hours  of  the  evening  the  walks  are  filled  with 
pedestrians  from  the  city,  while  the  drives  are  thronged  with 
automobile  parties  out  for  the  cool  evening  air.  In  the 
early  hours  of  the  day  we  would  have  found  the  horseback 
riders  cantering  along  these  same  roads  or  making  their 
way  through  the  bridle-paths.  The  children  sail  their 
boats  on  the  smooth  surface  of  the  lake.  In  winter  this 
same  lake  is  thronged  with  a  merry  crowd  of  skaters. 

Zoological  Gardens.  —  The  ever  popular  "  Zoo  "  is  also  a 
mecca  for  the  happy  crowds.  Here  almost  any  hour  of  the 
day  we  find  the  people  coming  for  amusement  and  instruc- 
tion. Animals,  and  birds,  and  reptiles  from  every  country 
in  the  world  may  be  seen  under  conditions  as  nearly  repro- 
ducing their  original  habitat  as  can  be  made.  For  the 
lover  of  flowers  and  trees  the  botanical  gardens  is  the  chief 
attraction. 

All  of  these  places,  playgrounds,  recreation  centers,  baths, 
piers,  and  parks,  are  maintained  by  the  public.  They  are 
the  evidence  that  the  community  believes  in  the  value 
and  necessity  for  recreation.  They  are  supported  by  funds 
from  the  public  treasury  which  have  been  secured  by  tax- 
ing the  people.  In  fact  the  people  own  and  pay  for  the 
upkeep  of  all  these  places.  This  does  not  mean,  however, 
that  because  we  are  a  part  of  the  community  supporting 
such  places  we  may  do  with  them  just  as  we  please.     If 


154         THE  ELEMENTS  OF   COMMUNITY   WELFARE 

I  destroy  the  plants  and  flowers  in  the  park  I  am  likely 
to  be  arrested.  This  is  not  because  I  am  not  a  part  owner 
of  the  plants  which  I  am  destroying,  but  because  I  am  a 
part  owner,  and  others  also  are  owners.  I  am  one  of  many 
who  have  provided  all  these  good  things  that  the  many 
may  enjoy  them.  If  I  in  any  manner  injure  that  which 
the  many  have  provided  I  am  injuring  the  many  and  will 
be  punished.     Public  ownership  means  public  trust. 

State  and  National  Parks.  —  Our  state  and  national 
governments  are  also  concerned  in  this  matter  of  recrea- 
tion. In  some  of  our  states  there  are  laws  requiring  cities 
to  provide  certain  facilities  for  recreation.  Then,  too, 
there  are  the  state  and  national  parks.  Many  of  these 
are  maintained  because  of  some  historic  association. 
Battle  fields  of  the  Revolutionary  and  Civil  wars  have 
been  made  into  great  parks.  Chickamauga,  Gettysburg, 
Valley  Forge,  and  many  other  parks  are  splendidly  main- 
tained. The  natural  beauty  of  these  places  has  been 
greatly  increased  by  proper  care  of  the  trees  and  plants. 
Beautiful  monuments  have  been  erected  and  the  grounds 
constantly  cared  for.  The  national  government  has  pre- 
served for  the  people  certain  places  of  great  natural  beauty. 
Yellowstone  National  Park  is  probably  the  best  known  of 
these  places.  Under  the  control  of  the  Department  of  the 
Interior  some  of  the  most  wonderful  works  of  nature  have 
been  preserved  for  the  people  and  made  accessible. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY  AND    DISCUSSION 

i.  What  recreational  facilities  are  provided  for  the  people  of  your 
community  ? 


Photograph  by  Gifford 

The  Grand  Canyon  of  the  Yellowstone  and  the  Great  Fall, 
Yellowstone  National  Park 


156         THE   ELEMENTS  OF  COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

2.  Draw  a  map  of  your  neighborhood  and  indicate  on  it  the  location 
of  playgrounds,  recreation  centers,  swimming  pools,  and  so  forth. 

3.  How  would  you  suggest  improving  the  opportunities  for  physical 
recreation  in  your  community  ? 

4.  Where  are  the  principal  parks  of  your  city  located  ?  How  would 
you  reach  them  ?  What  opportunities  do  they  afford  for  having  a  good 
time? 

5.  Which  is  better  —  one  large  park  for  the  entire  city,  or  a  number 
of  small  parks  scattered  through  the  city  ?  Give  the  reasons  for  your 
answer. 

6.  Are  the  parks  and  recreation  centers  of  your  city  conveniently 
located  ? 

7.  Tell  how  professional  baseball,  which  we  may  view  only  from 
the  grandstand,  may  play  a  part  in  the  city's  physical  recreation. 

8.  Does  your  school  have  inter-class  games?  How  may  these 
games  be  used  to  help  develop  a  school  team? 

9.  Some  parks  have  notices  posted  in  conspicuous  places  stating 
that  the  park  is  under  the  care  of  the  public.    What  does  this  mean  ? 

10.  What  do  we  mean  when  we  say  that  a  person  has  a  hobby? 
What  are  some  good  hobbies  for  boys  and  girls  of  your  age  ?  Of  what 
value  may  a  hobby  be  as  recreation? 

11.  What  arguments  would  you  advance  to  your  councilman  in 
favor  of  a  recreation  center  for  your  neighborhood  ? 

12.  What  parks  are  under  the  control  of  your  state?  Where  are 
they  located?  Why  were  these  places  selected?  Secure  literature 
descriptive  of  these  parks. 

13.  Make  a  list  of  our  national  parks.  For  what  is  each  noted? 
If  possible  secure  pictures  of  the  various  places  of  interest  in  these 
parks. 

EDUCATIONAL  RECREATION 

Those  of  us  who  spend  our  days  in  the  schoolroom  find 
our  recreation  largely  on  the  playground.  But  the  man  or 
woman  who  has  spent  the  day  in  some  form  of  physical 
activity  is  usually  too  tired  when  night  comes  to  care  for 
the  games  which  appeal  to  us.  To  them  the  greatest  amount 
of  recreation  may  come  from  the  enjoyment  of  some  quiet 


RECREATION  157 

form  of  pleasure.  Many  such  people  find  their  greatest 
enjoyment  in  the  things  which  we  call  educational.  We 
have  mentioned  the  library  as  a  place  where  one  might  further 
one's  education.  In  addition  to  this  it  is  a  place  where 
many  people  find  much  pleasure  and  enjoyment.  To  sit 
in  the  quiet  reading  room  and  enjoy  a  good  novel,  or  some 
work  of  travel  or  adventure,  is  not  only  restful  but  recrea- 
tional. If  we  glance  into  the  reading  rooms  of  our  libraries 
at  almost  any  hour  we  shall  see  men  and  women  so  enjoying 
themselves.  Then,  too,  there  are  the  lectures  in  school 
houses,  libraries,  and  other  places  to  which  many  people 
go.  We  shall  understand  better  as  we  grow  older  the  real 
pleasure  which  may  be  found  in  listening  to  an  interesting 
speaker  tell  his  story  of  travel,  or  discovery.  Museums, 
art  galleries,  zoological  gardens,  botanical  gardens,  are  all 
places  of  recreation  as  well  as  education.  One  could  spend 
days  in  wandering  through  the  Metropolitan  Museum  in 
New  York  or  similar  institutions  in  other  cities  and  expe- 
rience one  delight  after  another.  The  scene  in  such  places 
on  holidays  and  in  the  evenings  is  almost  like  that  at  a  great 
reception. 

SUGGESTIONS   FOR  FURTHER   STUDY  AND    DISCUSSION 

1.  To  what  extent  is  your  school  building  used  in  the  evenings  as 
a  recreation  center  ? 

2.  Are  there  any  free  lectures  offered  to  the  people  of  your  neighbor- 
hood?   Where  are  these  held?    What  is  the  nature  of  the  lectures? 

3.  Sometimes  lecturers  take  advantage  of  the  opportunity  to  spread 
false  ideas  concerning  the  nature  of  our  government.  How  can  the 
evil  effect  of  such  lies  be  checked  ?  What  should  the  loyal  people  of  a 
community  do  when  any  one  attempts  to  slander  the  government  ? 


158         THE  ELEMENTS  OF  COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

4.  Explain  how  a  library  may  contribute  to  one's  enjoyment  of  lei- 
sure time. 

5.  Make  a  list  of  the  museums  and  art  galleries  of  your  city.  Where 
are  these  located  ?  How  can  we  get  there  ?  When  is  the  public  ad- 
mitted free  of  charge  ?    What  is  there  to  be  seen  ? 

6.  How  could  your  community  increase  the  opportunities  for  educa- 
tional recreation  for  its  members? 

MUSIC  AND   ENTERTAINMENT 

Music.  —  The  community  not  only  provides  itself  with  the 
facilities  for  physical  and  educational  recreation  but  also  for 
music  and  other  entertainment.  In  our  city  parks  during 
the  summer  months  there  are  nightly  concerts  by  the  va- 
rious city  bands.  Often  there  will  be  a  splendid  soloist  who 
will  sing  or  play.  Many  thousands  of  people  in  our  cities 
find  great  enjoyment  in  resting  through  the  evening  hours 
in  a  comfortable  chair  while  they  listen  to  the  music  fur- 
nished by  the  band.  This  form  of  entertainment  has  really 
a  double  reason.  Not  only  are  the  people  refreshed  by  the 
enjoyment  which  is  afforded,  but  their  taste  for  good  music 
is  developed.  This  is  a  form  of  education.  Then,  too,  a 
music-loving  people  are  apt  to  be  better  citizens  just  because 
of  that  fact. 

But  people  are  so  fond  of  music  that  the  opportunities 
afforded  by  the  city  government  are  not  sufficient.  So  we 
find  that  our  large  cities  have  their  orchestras.  These  are 
not  maintained  by  the  city  government,  but  by  private  in- 
dividuals who  are  interested  in  music  and  in  the  welfare 
of  the  city.  Through  the  winter  such  orchestras  give  a 
series  of  concerts  the  expenses  for  which  are  paid  by  the 
admission  fees  which  are  charged  and  by  the  voluntary  con- 
tributions of  public-spirited  citizens. 


RECREATION  1 59 

Good  music  is  enjoyed  by  so  many  people  that  it  has 
become  quite  a  profitable  business  to  furnish  this  form  of 
recreation  to  the  public.  The  opera  houses,  where  the  best 
singers  and  musicians  of  the  world  may  be  heard,  are  crowded 
night  after  night  while  people  pay  considerable  sums  of 
money  for  seats.  In  some  European  countries  this  form 
of  recreation  has  been  recognized  to  be  of  such  value  that 
the  communities  have  endeavored  to  supply  it  for  them- 
selves. There  are  people  in  our  country  who  believe  that 
it  would  be  worth  while  for  the  community  to  supply  such 
music  for  itself  just  as  it  now  supplies  its  band  concerts. 
What  do  you  think  about  it  ? 

Moving  Pictures.  —  The  most  popular  and  most  profitable 
form  of  entertainment  which  has  sprung  up  in  the  last  few 
years  has  been  the  moving  picture  show.  There  are  to-day 
more  than  twenty  thousand  moving  picture  theaters  in 
the  United  States.  The  money  which  is  spent  annually 
for  the  production  of  films  and  for  admission  to  the  theaters 
represents  many  millions  of  dollars.  Almost  every  one  seems 
to  enjoy  moving  pictures  and  there  is  apparently  no  falling 
off  in  the  interest.  The  "  movies"  have  great  possibilities 
for  good  and  also  for  evil.  They  may  be  highly  educational 
as  well  as  amusing.  Sometimes,  however,  they  misinter- 
pret life.  This  is  not  a  noble  form  of  art.  It  tends  to  give, 
especially  to  immature  minds,  a  wrong  idea  of  life.  Such  a 
thing  can  only  result  in  harm  to  the  person  so  affected. 
As  young  people  are  especially  subject  to  such  wrong 
impressions,  the  welfare  of  the  community  suffers. 

In  order  to  check  the  use  of  such  pictures  the  community 


160         THE   ELEMENTS  OF   COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

has  developed  what  is  known  as  a  board  of  censors.  These 
censors  represent  the  people  of  the  state.  They  view  all 
pictures  before  they  are  shown  to  the  public  and  decide 
whether  or  not  they  should  be  changed  or  even  totally  re- 
jected. The  state  board  of  moving  picture  censors  has 
done  much  to  improve  the  condition  of  the  movies.  Since 
the  public,  however,  do  not  always  support  the  board,  occa- 
sionally pictures  are  shown  which  are  untrue  to  life.  The 
moving  picture  men  themselves  have  recognized  the  neces- 
sity for  keeping  the  movies  right.  They  have  established 
the  National  Board  of  Censors.  We  may  have  seen  this 
flashed  on  the  screen  along  with  the  State  Board  approval. 
This  National  Board  is  not  representing  the  national  gov- 
ernment as  we  would  at  first  think,  but  the  national  associ- 
ation of  moving  picture  men.  It,  too,  has  been  very  useful 
in  keeping  the  pictures  which  are  shown  from  being  objec- 
tionable. 

Pageants.  —  Another  form  of  public  amusement  is  to  be 
found  in  pageants.  The  value  of  such  entertainment 
from  both  an  educational  and  recreational  standpoint  is 
becoming  more  and  more  widely  recognized.  Our  schools 
and  community  centers  frequently  feature  some  form  of 
this  entertainment.  It  is  a  source  of  pleasure  and  instruc- 
tion to  the  people  of  the  neighborhood.  By  making  use 
of  the  folk  dances  and  games  of  the  home  lands  from  which 
the  new  Americans  have  come  we  are  able  to  make  them 
feel  more  at  home  in  the  country  of  their  adoption.  Then, 
too,  there  is  the  benefit  which  we  may  receive  from  this  gift 
which  they  have  to  offer.     At   anniversaries  of  city-wide 


RECREATION  l6l 

importance  the  city  community  often  celebrates  with  a 
festival  or  pageant.  This  form  of  celebration  is  rapidly 
replacing  the  older  dangerous  one  in  celebrating  the  Fourth 
of  July.  Such  celebrations  are  also  helpful  in  making  the 
people  of  the  city  feel  better  acquainted  with  each  other  and 
thereby  strengthen  community  spirit. 

There  are  many  other  forms  of  amusement  which  the 
people  of  the  city  enjoy.  Chief  among  these  are  dancing 
and  the  theater.  There  are  those  who  advocate  the  use 
of  community  centers  and  school  buildings  for  dancing. 
It  is  claimed  that  under  the  proper  supervision  which  such 
locations  would  permit  much  of  the  difficulty  which  grows 
out  of  tjie  public  dance  hall  would  be  eliminated.  This  is 
one  of  the  problems  which  the  community  must  some  day 
solve.  It  is  our  duty  to  become  acquainted  with  the  facts 
so  that  when  we  take  our  place  among  the  voters  we  shall 
be  in  a  position  to  act  wisely. 

SUGGESTIONS   FOR  FURTHER   STUDY  AND   DISCUSSION 

i.  What  opportunities  are  offered  by  your  community  for  the  en- 
joyment of  good  music? 

2.  How  can  you  justify  the  expenditure  of  public  funds  for  the  em- 
ployment of  musicians  in  a  municipal  band  to  give  free  entertainments 
to  the  people? 

3.  Are  there  any  reasons  which  might  be  advanced  in  favor  of  a 
municipal  opera  house  and  theater?    What  are  they? 

4.  What  effect  has  the  wide-spread  use  of  the  player  piano  and  the 
victrola  had  upon  the  home  life  of  the  community? 

5.  What  is  meant  by  a  "  community  sing  "  ?  Have  you  ever  at- 
tended one?     Of  what  service  is  it  to  the  community? 

6.  In  the  army  camps  there  were  frequent  entertainments  and 
sings  to  keep  up  the  morale.  What  is  meant  by  this  and  how  did  it 
accomplish  the  desired  results? 


162         THE   ELEMENTS  OF   COMMUNITY   WELFARE 

7.  How  can  you  account  for  the  present  popularity  of  the  moving 
picture  ? 

8.  What  are  some  of  the  valuable  things  which  we  may  get  from 
this  form  of  entertainment? 

9.  How  can  the  people  of  a  community  determine  the  type  of  pic- 
ture which  is  to  be  shown  in  the  local  theaters  ? 

10.  Has  your  community  given  a  pageant  recently  ?  What  was  the 
occasion  ?    Describe  what  took  place. 

1 1 .  Some  cities  have  an  annual  play  day  in  connection  with  the  public 
schools.  Of  what  value  is  such  a  day  —  to  the  children  who  take  part  ? 
—  to  the  grown  folk  who  look  on  ? 

12.  Give  some  reasons  for  the  celebration  of  a  "  safe  and  sane" 
Fourth. 

13.  How  could  your  school  building  be  used  to  better  advantage 
as  a  recreation  center  for  your  neighborhood?  . 

Qui 

CLUBS   AND   ASSOCIATIONS 

Much  splendid  work  has  been  done  in  our  communities 
by  private  organizations.  Clubs  for  boys  and  girls,  others 
for  men  and  women,  have  been  organized  to  meet  the  needs 
for  further  recreation.  Some  of  these  have  been  in  con- 
nection with  the  churches,  others  have  been  working  en- 
tirely alone.  Through  these  clubs  additional  gymnasiums 
and  playgrounds  have  been  provided  and  outdoor  life  has 
been  encouraged. 

Of  particular  importance  has  been  the  work  which  has 
been  done  by  the  Boy  Scouts  and  the  Camp  Fire  Girls. 
These  two  organizations  have  done  much  to  encourage  a 
proper  use  of  one's  leisure  time.  Through  their  various 
activities,  hikes,  sports,  and  the  like,  they  have  not  only 
made  for  better  manhood  and  womanhood  by  improving 
the  physical  life  of  their  members,  but  they  have  also  de- 
veloped a  better  type  of  citizen. 


RECREATION  163 

When  the  war  brought  the  thousands  of  our  young  men 
together  in  the  great  army  camps  it  was  seen  that  some  pro- 
vision must  be  made  for  such  leisure  time  as  they  might 
have.  To  be  sure  there  was  not  any  too  much  time  on 
the  hands  of  the  new  soldier,  but  what  little  there  was  might 
mean  either  the  making  or  breaking  of  his  spirit.  This 
spirit  is  called  the  morale  and  is  probably  the  most  impor- 
tant element  in  the  life  of  a  good  soldier.  Certain  organi- 
zations which  had  been  doing  a  splendid  work  among  the 
people  of  our  country  long  before  the  war  broke  out  were 
ready  to  answer  the  call.  The  Young  Men's  Christian 
Association,  The  Knights  of  Columbus,  The  Young  Men's 
Hebrew  Association,  and  the  Young  Women's  Christian 
Association  were  all  ready  for  the  work.  They  went  into 
our  army  camps  and  established  hostess  houses  and  places 
for  the  entertainment  of  the  soldiers  and  their  friends,  and 
in  a  thousand  ways  helped  make  the  life  of  the  recruit  as 
well  as  the  older  soldier  worth  living.  At  the  request  of 
the  army  authorities  they  took  over  much  of  the  athletic 
work  of  the  army,  directing  the  playing  of  games  and  the 
like.  As  the  army  crossed  the  Atlantic  these  good  people 
followed  and  in  France  aided  by  the  Salvation  Army  con- 
tinued their  good  work.  These  organizations  are  to  be 
found  with  us  now,  continuing  the  work  of  providing  health- 
ful recreation. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY  AND    DISCUSSION 

1.  What  is  meant  by  the  Boy  Scout  movement? 

2.  Tell  how  a  boy  may  become  a  scout. 

3.  What  is  the  scout  oath  and  pledge? 

4.  What  are  some  of  the  things  which  a  boy  learns  in  the  scouts  ? 


1 64         THE   ELEMENTS   OF   COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

5.  Have  an  exhibition  of  some  of  the  scout  activities  in  your  school 
assembly. 

6.  Apply  the  questions  just  asked  to  the  Girl  Scout  movement,  or  the 
Camp  Fire  Girls. 

7.  What  are  some  of  the  clubs  and  other  private  organizations  in 
your  community  which  are  interested  in  the  problem  of  recreation  ? 

INDIVIDUAL  RESPONSIBILITY 

It  has  been  uniformly  found  that  when  proper  forms 
of  recreation  have  been  provided  in  a  community  the 
number  of  arrests  have  fallen  off.  People  must  have  some- 
thing to  do  with  their  leisure  time.  For  the  most  part 
enjoyable  recreational  activities  will  be  made  use  of  if  they 
are  available.  If  these  are  not  available,  then  the  tendency 
is  to  create  a  situation  which  will  produce  excitement.  Very 
often  this  takes  the  form  of  doing  some  mischief  which  is 
likely  to  result  in  the  destruction  of  property,  injury  to 
some  one,  or  disturbing  the  peace. 

With  the  abolition  of  the  saloon,  which  has  been  called 
the  poor  man's  club,  more  than  ever  will  the  necessity  for 
the  provision  of  places  for  public  recreation  be  upon  us. 
We  shall  have  to  decide  which  we  prefer :  whether  it  is 
better  to  spend  our  money  for  the  increase  of  the  police 
force,  the  maintenance  of  courts,  and  the  addition  to  our 
prisons  ;  for  the  further  erection  of  public  playgrounds,  and 
the  provision  of  public  entertainment  and  other  forms  of 
recreation.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  good  citizen  in  every  way 
possible  to  co-operate  with  both  public  and  private  agencies 
whose  object  is  the  promotion  of  community  welfare  through 
wholesome  forms  of  recreation. 


CHAPTER   XI 
CIVIC   BEAUTY 

If  we  look  around  us  in  our  classroom  or  in  our  home  we 
will  see  many  evidences  that  people  like  to  have  attractive 
things  about  them.  On  the  walls  there  are  pictures. 
Instead  of  a  plain  bare  wall  we  find  that  it  has  been  papered 
or  painted.  In  our  homes  we  see  that  the  paper  is  not  just 
plain  paper  put  on  for  the  sake  of  hiding  the  plaster  but 
that  it  is  tinted  with  color  or  printed  with  some  design. 
Even  the  furniture,  which  so  far  as  its  usefulness  is  concerned 
might  just  as  well  be  of  plain  boards,  is  stained  and  finished. 
Instead  of  being  perfectly  plain  and  straight,  it  is  so 
fashioned  as  to  please  the  eye.  The  outsides  of  our  schools, 
homes,  and  other  buildings  are  painted  and  planned  in  a 
way  that  would  not  be  necessary  if  they  were  built  merely 
to  shelter  us. 

An  important  use  of  vision,  that  most  important  of  all  the 
senses,  is  that  it  enables  us  to  enjoy  what  is  beautiful.  The 
beauties  of  nature  so  appeal  to  us  that  when  it  is  possible 
we  spend  our  vacations  in  the  country,  at  the  mountains  or 
at  the  seashore,  to  enjoy  them.  Most  of  our  life,  however, 
is  spent  in  our  home  or  school  or  place  of  business.  The 
streets  and  buildings  of  our  town  or  city  are  the  things  which 
we  must  look  at  day  after  day.  If  we  live  always  among  ugly 
and  sordid  things  there  is  the  tendency  that  our  characters 

165 


1 66         THE   ELEMENTS  OF  COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

may  become  like  our  surroundings.  Crime  and  vice  are  often 
found  in  such  places.  How  important  it  is  that  we  have 
our  surroundings  as  beautiful  as  possible ! 

Cities  were  not  built  with  the  idea  of  having  them  places 
of  beauty.  There  are  a  few  exceptions  which  we  shall 
mention  later  on.  For  the  most  part  but  two  ideas  domi- 
nated —  a  place  to  work,  and  a  place  to  sleep.  In  spite 
of  the  fact  that  the  population  of  even  the  great  cities  was 
at  first  comparatively  small,  the  people  living  in  these  cities 
were  herded  closely  together.  There  were  no  adequate 
means  of  transportation,  and  so  it  was  necessary  for  people 
to  live  comparatively  near  to  their  places  of  business. 
Houses  were  built  and  streets  constructed  with  little 
thought  of  the  possibilities  of  growth  of  the  city.  The 
streets  were  often  narrow  and  the  buildings  tall.  Later 
factories  and  warehouses  were  built  indiscriminately  among 
the  dwellings  of  the  city.  The  smoke  from  the  stacks, 
the  narrow,  dingy  houses,  the  poorly  paved  streets  with 
their  mud  and  dirt,  made  living  in  such  places  undesir- 
able. Many  of  the  people  who  lived  in  such  sections,  how- 
ever, had  been  born  and  raised  there  and  knew  no  better. 
Others  coming  from  more  open  places  were  unable  to  pay 
the  higher  rental  for  better  sections  and  crowded  into  the 
already  overcrowded  houses  and  tenements.  Under  such 
conditions  beautiful  surroundings  were  out  of  the  question. 

One  of  the  results  of  wide-spread  education  has  been  a 
growing  desire  on  the  part  of  the  people  for  better  and  more 
pleasant  surroundings.  We  have  seen  that  one  of  the  reasons 
for  education  is  that  it  enables  us  to  get  more  enjoyment  out 
of  life.     We  learn  of  the  good  things  which  other  people 


CIVIC  BEAUTY        *  167 

are  enjoying  and  strive  to  get  these  things  for  ourselves. 
As  people  have  become  better  educated  they  have  seen 
that  there  is  more  in  life  than  the  mere  earning  of  a  live- 
lihood. They  have  learned  to  appreciate  the  value  of 
having  their  surroundings  attractive,  and,  so  far  as  possible, 

beautiful. 

OUR  HOMES 

Furnishings  and  Decorations.  —  In  our  own  homes  we 
alone  are  responsible  for  the  beauty  of  our  surroundings. 
Some  houses  are  of  course  so  constructed  as  to  be  in  them- 
selves much  more  attractive  than  others.  But  it  is  entirely 
possible  to  have  a  beautifully  built  house  spoiled  by  lack 
of  taste  on  the  part  of  the  people  who  furnish  and  deco- 
rate it.  On  the  other  hand  we  may  have  a  very  unattrac- 
tive house  or  room  made  a  pleasure  to  see  by  the  exercise 
of  care  and  good  taste  in  the  furnishing. 

It  is  not  a  question  of  how  much  money  we  have  to  spend 
but  upon  what  we  spend  it  that  counts  so  far  as  the  beauty 
of  our  homes  is  concerned.  Furniture,  even  if  inexpensive, 
when  selected  with  a  view  to  simplicity  of  design  and 
harmony  with  the  rest  of  the  house,  will  be  most  admired. 
Pictures,  too,  may  be  made  to  add  very  much  to  the  at- 
tractiveness of  a  room.  One  picture  carefully  chosen  and 
of  a  worthy  subject  is  worth  a  dozen  chromos  purchased 
mainly  because  of  the  elaborateness  of  the  frame  or  the 
vividness  of  the  colors. 

One  of  the  things  which  we  should  get  from  our  art  work 
in  school  is  a  taste  for  that  which  is  good  and  some  idea 
of  what  is  beautiful.  Manufacturers  tell  us  that  it  is  just 
as  easy  for  them  to  produce  beautiful  articles  as  it  is  to 


1 68         THE  ELEMENTS  OF   COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

make  the  ugly  stuff,  but  that  the  latter  is  so  much  more  in 
demand  that  it  does  not  pay  to,  make  the  beautiful.  When 
the  taste  of  the  buying  public  is  educated  to  the  point  where 
they  will  refuse  to  buy  rather  than  take  articles  whose  sole 
recommendation  is  their  gaudiness,  the  manufacturers  will 
put  the  better  class  of  goods  on  the  market. 

Paint  and  Repairs.  —  Then  too  there  is  the  matter  of 
paint  and  repairs.  A  neighborhood  where  the  painting  has 
been  neglected  is  also  a  place  where  many  repairs  are  needed. 
To  do  without  paint  is  poor  economy,  for  paint  is  a  pre- 
server of  wood.  The  householder  who  paints  his  house  is 
performing  a  service  for  the  whole  community. 

Window  Boxes.  —  One  of  the  causes  of  the  ugliness  of 
so  many  of  our  cities  is  that  the  houses  are  built  up  close 
one  against  another,  and  with  endless  repetitions  of  the 
same  design.  How  refreshing  it  is  to  get  into  the 
suburban  sections  and  see  the  plots  of  grass  and  the 
individuality  of  the  various  houses !  In  the  built-up 
sections  of  our  cities  we  are  unable  to  control  this.  It 
is  not  even  possible  to  have  a  small  grass  plot.  Here  and 
there,  however,  we  see  a  house  where  in  the  summer  a  win- 
dow box  is  filled  with  blooming  plants,  and  in  the  winter 
with  some  hardy  shrub.  Such  boxes  are  easily  made.  Our 
shop  instructor  will  gladly  tell  us  just  how  to  go  about  it. 

Lawns  and  Gardens.  —  If  we  live  in  a  section  where  there 
are  lawns  in  front  of  the  houses  or  have  passed  through 
such  a  place  we  know  how  pretty  it  is.  The  efforts  of  the 
householder  to  beautify  the  lawn  and  thereby  the  neigh- 


From  a  photograph  by  the  Lumiere  Company 

A  Garden  Arrangement  Giving  an  Effect  of  Distance 


170         THE   ELEMENTS  OF   COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

borhood,  by  planting  flowers  and  shrubbery,  should  certainly 
be  appreciated.  Such  plants  are  really  community  prop- 
erty, for  do  not  the  people  of  the  community  enjoy  them 
as  much  as  the  owner  ?  The  person  who  carelessly  damages 
such  property  is  damaging  community  property.  It  may 
seem  a  little  thing  to  walk  across  the  grass  or  to  take 
a  flower  or  two,  but  if  every  member  of  the  community  did 
this  there  would  soon  be  none  left  to  enjoy.  It  is  a  sign  of 
good  citizenship  when  one  respects  the  property  rights  of 
others. 

SUGGESTIONS   FOR  FURTHER   STUDY  AND    DISCUSSION 

1.  A  splendid  place  to  begin  practice  in  the  development  of  civic 
beauty  is  in  our  own  classroom  and  in  our  own  school.  What  can  we  do 
to  help  along  the  lines  of  cleanliness,  attractive  decorations,  gardens, 
trees,  and  so  forth? 

2.  What  principles  should  guide  you  in  the  selection  of  wall  paper 
for  a  living  room  ?  a  dining  room  ?  a  bedroom  ? 

3.  What  effect  on  the  appearance  of  a  neighborhood  has  a  house 
where  the  owner  has  permitted  it  to  go  for  years  without  repair  or  paint  ? 

4.  How  does  the  effort  of  the  individual  to  keep  his  house  in  good 
condition  affect  the  other  members  of  the  community? 

5.  Make  a  list  of  some  of  the  pictures  which  you  would  like  to  have 
in  your  home. 

6.  Why  do  we  call  the  planting  of  a  window  box,  or  garden,  or  tree 
an  act  of  good  citizenship  ? 

OUR   STREETS 

Cleanliness.  —  If  we  were  visiting  a  strange  neighbor- 
hood or  city  it  would  make  little  difference  how  beautiful 
the  buildings  were  or  how  attractive  the  lawns  ;  if  the  streets 
were  filled  with  rubbish  and  dirt,  we  would  form  a  very  poor 


CIVIC  BEAUTY  171 

opinion  of  the  place.  How  often  have  we  seen  just  this 
thing !  People  who  take  great  pride  in  the  furnishings  and 
decorations  of  their  homes,  and  who  are  particular  that  the 
houses  are  kept  in  repair  and  well  painted,  will  often  be 
guilty  of  having  their  ashes  and  rubbish  placed  on  the  street 
in  such  a  careless  manner  that  the  wind  soon  has  them 
blowing  all  over.  From  the  time  the  waste  is  put  out 
until  the  street  cleaners  come  along  may  be  a  matter  of 
hours,  but  sometimes  it  is  a  day  or  more,  and  the  streets 
will  be  filled  with  flying  scraps  of  paper  and  other  waste. 
If  each  person  were  to  give  just  a  moment  of  thought 
to  this  matter  how  different  the  appearance  of  some  of  our 
streets  might  be.  What  is  needed  is  an  awakening  of 
public  interest  in  the  condition  of  the  streets.  This  will 
soon  be  followed  by  a  more  strict  enforcement  of  the  law 
concerning  waste  disposal.  Each  one  of  us  may  do  much 
by  seeing  that  we  at  least  will  not  be  the  ones  to  be 
responsible  for  such  unci  vie  action. 

Paving.  —  The  condition  of  the  surface  of  the  street  has 
much  to  do  with  its  attractiveness.  Fortunately  this  mat- 
ter is  handled  by  the  city  authorities.  Inspectors  make 
frequent  tours  of  inspection,  and  the  police  co-operate  by 
reporting  breaks  which  they  observe.  When  the  streets 
are  well  paved  with  a  good  smooth  surface,  and  are  cleaned 
regularly  so  that  dirt  does  not  collect,  they  do  much  to  im- 
prove the  appearance  of  the  neighborhood.  A  well-paved 
and  well-cleaned  street  often  has  the  effect  of  arousing  such 
pride  in  the  householders  living  along  it  that  they  take 
especial  precautions  not  to  mar  its  appearance. 


172         THE   ELEMENTS  OF   COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

Unsightly  Objects.  —  Let  us  think  for  a  minute  of  two 
different  streets.  Both  are  lined  with  stores  and  dwell- 
ings and  filled  with  moving  traffic.  On  the  first  street 
in  front  of  many  of  the  stores  hang  large  swinging  signs. 
Here  and  there  awnings,  supported  by  iron  poles  rising 
from  the  curb  line,  project  out  over  the  sidewalk.  In 
front  of  some  of  the  stores  goods  are  on  display  on  stands 
on  the  sidewalk,  partly  blocking  the  way.  Lined  up  along 
the  curb  are  the  carts  of  the  venders  of  all  sorts  of  produce 
and  merchandise.  The  street  is  roughly  paved  with  Bel- 
gian blocks.  At  regular  intervals  stand  a  pair  of  iron  poles 
supporting  the  wires  of  the  trolley  line.  Rising  high  above 
these  are  the  tall  wooden  poles  with  their  great  cross  arms 
bearing  a  maze  of  heavy  wires.  The  other  street  is  equally 
busy.  The  sidewalks  are  filled  with  people,  while  in  the 
streets  a  long  line  of  cars  and  automobiles  extends  as  far 
as  the  eye  can  reach.  There  are  no  swinging  signs  be- 
fore the  stores,  nor  overhanging  awnings.  '  A  great  variety 
of  goods  is  on  display  but  it  is  inside  the  stores.  We 
look  overhead  but  fail  to  see  the  unsightly  poles  and  lines 
of  wires  which  we  noticed  on  the  other  street.  Beneath 
the  surface  of  the  street  in  pipes  laid  for  that  purpose  run 
all  these  wires.  Even  the  trolley  wires  are  underground. 
Which  of  these  two  streets  presents  the  better  appearance  ? 
How  will  they  differ  in  their  effect  on  the  citizens  who  use 
them  every  day? 

Shade  Trees.  —  Residential  streets  may  often  be  made 
more  attractive  by  the  planting  of  appropriate  shade  trees. 
Well  cared  for,  these  become  not  only  a  source  of  beauty  for 


CIVIC  BEAUTY  173 

the  street  but  of  pride  to  the  people  who  live  along  it.  In 
the  summer  their  welcome  shade  shelters  the  pedestrian 
on  his  way  to  and  from  business.  Usually  such  trees  are 
considered  the  property  of  the  city.  In  many  instances 
they  have  been  planted  by  the  city.  We  may  not  put  out 
any  trees  which  we  please  in  front  of  our  homes  even  though 
we  may  own  them.  Nor  may  we  trim  them  to  suit  our- 
selves. Many  cities  have  foresters  whose  business  it  is  to 
look  after  the  trees  and  see  that  they  are  properly  cared 
for. 

Street  Lighting.  —  The  appearance  of  a  street  may  be 
made  or  marred  by  the  system  of  lighting  which  is  used. 
Unsightly  lamp  posts  or  electric  light  poles  may  spoil  the 
beauty  of  an  otherwise  splendid  street.  Where  streets  are 
quite  wide,  as  is  the  case  with  many  of  our  principal  thor- 
oughfares and  boulevards,  the  lights  are  arranged  along 
the  center  of  the  street.  A  well-designed  ornamental  post 
may  be  a  source  of  pleasure  to  the  eye  during  the  day.  The 
lights  themselves  may  be  so  arranged  and  so  swung  as  to 
make  the  street  exceedingly  attractive  at  night.  In  the 
public  squares  and  gardens  and  around  public  buildings 
we  often  find  brilliant  lighting  effects.  Then,  too,  the  ar- 
rangement of  lights  so  as  to  light  up  these  public  buildings 
and  monuments  is  another  method  of  increasing  the  beauty 
and  attractiveness  of  the  city. 

SUGGESTIONS   FOR  FURTHER   STUDY  AND    DISCUSSION 

1.  What  is  the  condition  of  the  streets  around  your  home  and  school 
in  regard  to  cleanliness  ?  How  does  this  affect  the  appearance  of  the 
neighborhood  ? 


174         THE   ELEMENTS  OF   COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

2.  Can  you  suggest  some  plan  whereby  the  members  of  your  class 
could  work  together  to  improve  the  appearance  of  your  neighborhood 
by  securing  cleaner  streets  ? 

3.  How  are  the  streets  in  your  neighborhood  paved?  Does  the 
paving  add  to  or  detract  from  the  beauty  of  the  street?    Why? 

4.  Do  you  find  any  of  the  conditions  mentioned  in  the  paragraph  on 
unsightly  objects  existing  in  your  city  ?  What  effect  do  they  have  on 
the  appearance  of  the  city  ?  How  could  these  conditions  be  remedied  ? 
Are  there  any  ordinances  against  them? 

5.  Outline  a  simple,  inexpensive  program  for  improving  the  appear- 
ance of  the  streets  in  your  neighborhood. 

6.  Make  a  list  of  trees  which  are  suitable  for  street  planting.  What 
trees  are  not  well  adapted  for  the  purpose?    Why? 

7.  What  are  some  of  the  enemies  of  our  city  trees  ?  How  may  we 
help  fight  them  and  save  our  trees? 

8.  Why  is  the  man  who  plants  a  shade  tree  called  a  public  bene- 
factor ? 

9.  How  are  the  streets  of  your  city  lighted  ?  Is  any  effort  made  to 
make  the  lighting  system  a  source  of  beauty  to  the  community  ?  If  so, 
how  is  this  accomplished  ?  If  not,  what  suggestions  would  you  make  for 
taking  advantage  of  this  means  of  improving  civic  beauty? 

PARKS  AND   BOULEVARDS 

Parks.  —  Parks  and  boulevards  are  not  only  important 
in  the  recreational  life  of  the  city  and  in  solving  its  trans- 
portation problem,  but  they  are  also  a  source  of  beauty. 
What  city,  however  small,  does  not  pride  itself  on  some  par- 
ticularly beautiful  park !  Often  a  place  of  great  natural 
beauty  near  the  city  is  selected  and  carefully  planned  so 
that  it  will  be  one  of  the  beauty  spots  of  the  community. 
When  cities  are  rebuilding  certain  parts,  or  where  new  sec- 
tions are  being  established,  small  parks  and  squares  are 
often  made  to  play  an  important  part  in  the  development. 

The  space  which  such  squares  and  parks  occupy  is  more 


CIVIC  BEAUTY  175 

than  made  up  for  by  the  improvement  which  they  make  in 
the  neighborhood  and  the  consequent  increase  in  the  valu- 
ation of  the  property.  In  these  squares  and  parks  we  often 
find  beautiful  monuments  erected  in  memory  of  some  his- 
toric personage  or  event.  Sometimes  the  beauty  of  the 
park  is  increased  by  building  fountains  and  small  lakes. 
Where  parks  are  located  at  the  radial  points  of  diagonal 
streets  and  radial  avenues  they  greatly  improve  the  view 
along  the  streets.  They  also  form  natural  places  for  the 
grouping  of  public  buildings. 

Parkways  and  Boulevards.  —  Among  other  ways  of  add- 
ing to  the  beauty  of  a  city  is  the  construction  of  parkways 
and  boulevards.  These  are  usually  very  wide  and  attrac- 
tively planned  streets.  There  may  be  a  number  of  separate 
parallel  streets  with  stretches  of  grass,  trees,  and  flowers  in 
between.  Certain  parts  are  usually  reserved  entirely  for 
pleasure  vehicles.  The  whole  street  often  forms  a  long  and 
somewhat  narrow  park.  Along  the  sidewalks  we  see  the 
throngs  of  people,  while  the  driveways  are  crowded  with 
automobiles.  Trolley  cars  are  usually  not  run  on  these 
boulevards.  If  care  has  been  taken  that  only  buildings 
conforming  to  certain  standards  of  architecture  be  erected 
along  it,  the  boulevard  may  be  one  of  the  show  places 
of  the  city. 

The  Water  Front.  —  Many  of  our  cities  are  located  on 
water  fronts.  Usually  there  is  an  important  relation  be- 
tween the  river  or  lake  or  other  body  of  water  on  which  the 
city  is  situated  and  the  prosperity  of  the  place.  Many 
cities  conduct  a  great  deal  of  trade  on  these  bodies  of  water. 


176         THE  ELEMENTS   OF   COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

This  being  the  case  it  often  happens  that  the  beauty  of  the 
water  front  has  been  neglected  for  the  sake  of  the  business 
which  is  being  carried  on.  The  result  of  this  is  that  the 
water  fronts  are  often  busy  but  unsightly  places.  Wharves, 
piers,  docks,  railroad  tracks,  great  drays  and  trucks  form 
the  principal  part  of  the  picture.  Little  if  any  attention 
is  paid  to  appearances.  Yet  such  water  fronts  afford  one 
of  the  best  opportunities  for  a  city  to  present  a  beautiful 
appearance.  Most  people  enjoy  a  scene  where  there  is 
water.  It  is  possible  to  so  plan  the  water  front  of  a  city  as 
to  have  it  one  of  the  most  attractive  parts  of  the  city. 
Piers  and  wharves  can  be  constructed  so  as  to  be  objects  of 
beauty.  By  planning  wide  boulevards  along  the  water  front 
and  regulating  the  type  of  building  which  may  be  erected, 
the  result  may  be  parklike  in  appearance.  Many  of  our 
large  cities  are  following  this  plan  with  the  result  that  the 
beauty  of  the  city  is  being  increased. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION 

1.  What  are  the  most  beautiful  streets  of  your  city?  To  what  do 
these  streets  owe  their  beauty? 

2.  To  which  parks  would  you  take  a  visitor  to  your  city?  How 
would  you  get  there  ?  What  points  of  especial  beauty  or  of  particular 
interest  would  you  want  the  visitor  to  be  sure  to  see  ? 

3.  Write  out  a  plan  for  a  trip  through  your  city  making  use  of  such 
means  of  conveyance  as  are  available  which  would  show  a  visitor  the 
prettiest  parts  of  your  city.  Are  there  any  places  which  because  of 
their  ugliness  you  would  care  to  avoid?  What  could  be  done  to  im- 
prove these  places? 

4.  On  an  outline  map  of  your  city  indicate  the  important  boulevards 
and  parkways. 

5.  Has  your  city  a  water  front  of  whose  beauty  you  may  be  proud  ? 
If  so,  why? 


CIVIC  BEAUTY  1 77 

ART 

A  wide-awake  community  further  endeavors  to  provide 
for  civic  beauty  by  cultivating  an  appreciation  of  art  among 
its  citizens.  There  are  many  opportunities  for  real  artistic 
work  in  our  modern  cities.  The  public  buildings,  bridges, 
monuments,  and  statues  which  we  find  in  every  city  should 
represent  so  far  as  possible  good  taste.  There  was  a  time 
when  if  a  bridge  was  to  be  built  or  library  erected  little  if 
any  thought  was  given  to  the  beauty  of  the  structure.  A 
bridge  was  a  bridge,  and  if  it  served  its  purpose  what  did  it 
matter  if  it  were  merely  a  skeleton  of  steel  offensive  to  the 
eye  ?  The  education  of  the  public  along  artistic  lines,  how- 
ever, has  been  going  on  for  years,  and  to-day  even  so  crude 
an  object  as  a  railroad  bridge  is  given  attention  from  the 
point  of  view  of  its  beauty.  It  costs  but  little  more  to  the 
community  to  have  things  of  beauty  surrounding  it,  and 
the  average  community  is  beginning  to  demand  that  their 
city  be  not  spoiled  with  inartistic  structures.  Then,  too, 
monuments  and  statues  were  frequently  donated  by  people 
well  meaning  but  possessing  little  sense  of  real  beauty. 
These  monuments  were  often  erected  without  reference  to 
their  fitting  their  environment  and  frequently  became  eye- 
sores to  the  people  who  had  to  look  at  them.  In  order  to 
overcome  these  difficulties  we  find  in  many  communities 
an  Art  Jury.  This  consists  usually  of  a  number  of  public- 
spirited  men  and  includes  prominent  architects  and  artists. 
When  a  public  building  is  to  be  erected,  or  a  statue  or  monu- 
ment or  other  work  of  art  displayed,  this  jury  decides 
whether  or  not  it  is  artistic  and  worthy  of  the  community. 


178         THE   ELEMENTS  OF   COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  FURTHER   STUDY  AND    DISCUSSION 

1.  Which  public  building  in  your  neighborhood  do  you  consider 
most  beautiful?    Why? 

2.  Collect  views  of  various  public  buildings  in  your  city.  Compare 
these  with  the  pictures  of  buildings  built  for  similar  purposes  in  other 
cities. 

3.  Which  of  the  monuments  of  your  city  which  you  have  seen  do 
you  consider  the  most  artistic?    Why? 

4.  What  arguments  would  you  advance  in  favoring  a  bridge  de- 
signed so  as  to  be  pleasing  to  the  eye  rather  than  one  erected  for  mere 
utility? 

5.  What  effect  will  beautifully  designed  buildings  and  so  forth  have 
upon  the  inhabitants  of  a  city? 

CITY  PLANNING 

Street  Plans.  —  Most  of  our  cities  had  grown  to  a  con- 
siderable size  before  much  attention  was  paid  to  the  matter 
of  careful  planning.  Beginning  as  small  towns  with  most 
of  the  houses  ranged  along  one  main  street,  as  development 
continued  the  tendency  was  to  determine  the  location  and 
direction  of  streets  and  the  position  of  houses  with  refer- 
ence to  those  already  built.  At  times  the  streets  would  follow 
the  path  of  an  old  road  which  had  been  made  with  a  view  to 
ease  of  travel  rather  than  with  any  idea  as  to  fitness  for  a 
city  street.  There  are  in  some  of  our  older  cities  streets  that 
are  so  crooked  and  winding  that  the  only  way  to  account 
for  them  seems  to  be  that  they  at  one  time  must  have  been 
cow  paths.  In  many  of  our  cities,  however,  probably  due 
to  the  ease  of  construction,  the  so-called  checker-board  plan 
has  been  followed.  This  made  for  uniform  shaped  plots 
of  land.  It  was  such  a  plan  that  William  Penn  made  for 
the  city  of  Philadelphia. 


CIVIC  BEAUTY  179 

Diagonal  Streets.  —  Many  of  the  diagonal  streets  which 
we  find  in  our  city  are  due  to  the  fact  that  roads  were 
built  between  the  old  town  proper  and  certain  outlying 
districts.  As  the  development  of  property  continued  it 
was  but  natural  that  these  roads  should  determine  the  plac- 
ing of  new  properties.  Such  diagonal  streets  are  of  great 
advantage  to  a  city.  If  the  entire  city  is  laid  out  as  a  checker- 
board we  can  readily  see  that  to  go  from  one  part  of  the 
city  to  another  it  is  necessary  often  to  follow  the  two  sides 
of  a  triangle.  Diagonal  streets  provide  short  cuts  from 
one  part  of  the  city  to  another.  In  this  way  they  afford  a 
great  saving  of  time.  Such  streets  are  usually  very  busy. 
Many  people  take  advantage  of  the  opportunity  to  make 
a  short  cut.  This  means  a  good  chance  for  business,  so  that 
we  find  such  streets  usually  business  thoroughfares.  Most 
of  our  cities  are  so  poorly  provided  with  such  streets  that 
on  the  few  which  exist  we  find  a  large  amount  of  traffic,  at 
times  amounting  to  congestion.  As  the  newer  sections  of 
our  cities  are  being  laid  out  care  should  be  taken  to  provide 
for  a  number  of  such  diagonal  streets.  In  the  older  sections 
there  is  occasionally  afforded  an  opportunity  of  adding  such 
streets  when  great  public  improvements  are  being  made. 
This  is  of  course  very  expensive,  but  pays  for  itself  in  the 
long  run. 

A  Well-planned  City.  —  The  city  of  Washington  is  con- 
sidered to  be  the  finest-planned  city  in  our  country.  More 
than  a  hundred  years  ago  a  French  engineer,  Major  L'En- 
fant,  was  engaged  to  make  plans  for  the  new  capital  of  the 
United  States.     As  there  was  no  city  there  at  that  time,  he 


CIVIC  BEAUTY  181 

was  perfectly  free  to  plan  it  as  he  saw  fit.  Profiting  by 
his  knowledge  of  the  good  and  bad  features  of  the  cities  of 
Europe,  he  planned  the  new  city.  He  selected  two  points 
at  some  distance  apart.  At  one  of  these  he  placed  the 
Capitol,  at  the  other  the  White  House.  Both  of  these 
were  to  be  surrounded  by  spacious  parks.  Connecting  the 
two  he  laid  out  a  fine  wide  street.  This  is  called  Pennsyl- 
vania Avenue.  Other  streets  of  the  city  were  to  be  arranged 
as  the  spokes  of  a  wheel.  The  Capitol  and  the  White  House 
were  to  be  the  hubs  from  which  these  streets  should  radiate. 
As  the  other  public  buildings  were  erected  they  were  cen- 
tered around  the  hubs  of  these  wheels.  This  made  for  a 
splendid  grouping  of  the  public  buildings,  and  at  the  same 
time  the  radial  streets  gave  fine  views  of  these  buildings  for 
a  great  distance  and  from  all  parts  of  the  city.  The  small 
spaces  where  the  cross  streets  intersected  formed  pretty 
parks  where  fountains  and  statuary  added  to  the  beauty  of 
the  city.  The  streets  are  very  wide  and  well  paved.  The 
electric  wires  are  underground.  The  display  of  signs  is 
carefully  regulated,  and  the  manufacturing  sections  are 
definitely  prescribed.  The  result  is  a  wonderfully  attractive 
city  which  shows  what  can  be  done  if  proper  foresight  is 
used. 

Regulating  the  Height  of  Buildings.  —  With  the  develop- 
ment of  cities  has  come  the  effort  to  get  as  much  space  as 
possible  out  of  every  building  erected.  The  high  cost  of 
land  in  the  business  sections  of  our  cities  and  the  desire  of  so 
many  people  to  have  their  offices  in  the  heart  of  the  business 
section  has  led  to  the  erection  of  a  modern  type  of  building 


182         THE  ELEMENTS  OF   COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

known  as  the  "  skyscraper."  Equipped  with  speedy  eleva- 
tors, they  enable  a  man  to  have  his  office  if  necessary  twenty 
or  thirty  stories  above  the  ground  and  yet  be  able  to  reach 
quickly  other  business  men  in  the  same  neighborhood.  The 
streets  of  our  cities,  however,  were  not  planned  with  a  view 
to  accommodating  such  giant  structures.  A  street  which  is 
lined  with  such  buildings  should  be  very  wide  so  that  the 
street  itself  will  not  be  darkened  by  the  buildings  and  that 
the  tremendous  traffic  which  such  congestion  of  population 
brings  may  be  handled  satisfactorily.  Often,  too,  such  build- 
ings are  planned  with  a  view  merely  to  utility  and  with  no 
thought  of  the  effect  which  their  appearance  will  have  on 
the  beauty  of  the  city.  In  order  to  regulate  properly  such 
matters,  and  also  to  see  that  the  smaller  buildings  are  planned 
with  a  view  to  the  appearance  of  the  community,  many  of 
our  cities  are  regulating  the  erection  of  such  structures  by 
means  of  ordinance  and  zoning  commissions. 

Business  and  Residential  Sections.  —  The  growth  of  a 
city  is  also  attended  with,  and  to  no  small  extent  caused  by, 
the  increase  of  manufacturing.  Sections  of  a  city  which 
have  at  one  time  been  wholly  residential  are  gradually  en- 
croached upon  by  mill  and  factory.  Then,  too,  the  business 
sections  of  the  city  spread.  It  is  a  familiar  sight  to  see  the 
fronts  being  torn  out  of  residences  and  bulk  windows  being 
put  in,  turning  the  former  house  into  a  store.  Often  the 
coming  of  a  mill  or  factory  means  smoke  nuisance  and  noise, 
which  makes  the  section  unfitted  for  residence.  The  de- 
mand for  property  for  business  purposes  increases  very  ma- 
terially the  value  of  the  property  in  the  neighborhood,  so 


CIVIC  BEAUTY  183 

that  rentals  become  almost  prohibitive.  Many  cities  have 
been  divided  up  into  districts.  Some  of  these  are  for 
manufacturing,  others  for  office  buildings,  and  still  others 
for  residences.  The  work  of  the  zoning  commission  is  to 
see  that  the  city  is  so  divided. 

A  well-planned  city  makes  provision  for  future  develop- 
ment. A  hundred  years  ago  the  present  tremendous  growth 
of  cities  was  unforeseen.  The  streets  were  too  narrow  and 
poorly  arranged  for  the  demands  of  the  modern  metropolis. 
To-day  many  of  these  cities  are  widening  the  streets  in  their 
business  sections  at  enormous  costs  and  building  radial 
avenues  and  traffic  circuits.  A  traffic  circuit  is  made  by 
widening  certain  streets  a  short  distance  away  from  the 
congested  districts  and  diverting  some  of  the  traffic  from 
the  main  thoroughfares.  The  development  of  parkways 
makes  possible  the  grouping  of  public  buildings,  which  is  not 
only  to  be  desired  as  an  element  of  beauty  but  also  as  a  mat- 
ter of  convenience.  Business  and  residential  sections  are 
carefully  laid  out  and  the  building  restrictions  rigidly  en- 
forced. Uniformity  in  height  of  buildings  is  maintained 
in  definite  sections  so  as  to  prevent  the  abnormal  develop- 
ment of  the  skyscraper.  Care  is  taken  that  the  homes  of 
those  who  are  unable  to  pay  high  rentals  are  made  as  at- 
tractive as  possible,  and  especial  attention  is  paid  to  the 
planning  and  construction  of  tenements.  And  with  all  this 
must  be  kept  in  mind  the  systems  of  transportation,  which 
are  the  arteries  of  the  city  and  enable  the  people  easily  to 
reach  their  places  of  business  and  the  shopping  centers  from 
their  homes. 


1 84         THE  ELEMENTS  OF   COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

SUGGESTIONS   FOR  FURTHER   STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION 

i.  Make  a  sketch  map  of  your  city  which  will  illustrate  the  gen- 
eral plan  of  the  city  and  the  arrangement  of  its  streets. 

2.  Has  your  city  been  definitely  planned?    If  so,  by  whom? 

3.  Compare  the  plan  of  the  city  of  Washington  with  that  of  your 
own  city.    Which  is  better  planned  ?    Why  ? 

4.  Is  your  city  provided  with  diagonal  streets  ?  How  do  they  aid 
in  transportation  ?    How  do  they  affect  the  beauty  of  the  city  ? 

5.  If  you  had  the  privilege  of  adding  one  more  diagonal  street  to 
your  city  plan,  where  would  you  locate  it  so  that  the  best  interests  of 
the  entire  city  might  be  conserved? 

6.  Are  the  business  and  residential  sections  of  your  city  fairly 
distinct  ? 

7.  How  is  the  appearance  of  your  city  affected  by  the  following: 
smoke  nuisance ;  surface  railroad  lines ;  overhead  wires ;  poles ;  signs  ? 

8.  Have  you  a  zoning  commission  in  your  city  ?    What  does  it  do  ? 

9.  Have  you  an  art  jury  in  your  city?    What  does  it  do? 

10.  What  effect  has  the  height  and  appearance  of  buildings  on  the 
beauty  of  the  city  ? 

NATURAL  BEAUTY 

Our  country  has  been  richly  endowed  with  great  natural 
beauty.  Stately  forests,  beautiful  rivers,  lofty  snow-capped 
mountain  peaks,  plain  and  prairie,  fertile  valleys,  all  lend 
their  part  in  making  ours  the  most  beautiful  country  in  the 
world.  But  where  man  goes  very  often  beauty  disappears. 
He  cuts  down  the  forests,  pollutes  the  rivers,  harnesses  the 
waterfalls,  and  fills  the  clear  blue  sky  with  the  smoke  from 
ten  thousand  stacks.  Uncontrolled,  it  would  be  but  a  short 
while  before  much  of  the  wealth  of  natural  beauty  would  be 
taken  from  us  forever.  Great  forests  would  be  ruthlessly 
-destroyed  and  ravaged  by  fires,  the  result  of  man's  careless- 
ness. Niagara  would  be  harnessed  to  drive  the  wheels  of 
industry  until  that  magnificent  work  of  nature  would  be 


CIVIC  BEAUTY  185 

ruined  forever.  Our  great  canons  would  be  staked  with 
the  claims  of  miners  or  obstructed  by  land-grabbers  who 
would  monopolize  the  wonders  of  nature  and  sell  them  to 
the  people  to  whom  they  already  belong. 

Fortunately  the  community,  both  state  and  nation,  has 
awakened  to  the  fact  that  the  natural  beauties  of  the  land 
must  be  preserved.  Our  state  governments  have  acquired 
the  right  to  places  of  great  natural  beauty  within  their 
limits  and  have  turned  these  into  parks  for  the  people  under 
the  care  of  the  state.  Now  as  the  property  of  all,  all  may 
enjoy  and  none  destroy.  The  nation,  too,  on  even  a  much 
grander  scale,  has  acquired  great  stretches  of  land  where 
nature  has  outdone  herself  in  providing  things  of  beauty. 
Here  we  find  the  great  national  parks  under  the  care  of 
the  national  government  and  forever  belonging  to  all  of  us. 
Yellowstone  National  Park  and  Glacier  Park  together  with 
many  others  are  to-day  the  playgrounds  of  the  people. 

SUGGESTIONS   FOR   FURTHER   STUDY  AND    DISCUSSION 

1.  Make  a  list  of  the  places  in  your  state  which  are  noted  for  then- 
natural  beauty.     If  possible  secure  pictures  of  these  places. 

2.  Some  people  feel  that  they  must  travel  into  distant  states,  or 
into  remote  corners  of  their  own  state  to  find  places  of  beauty.  Is  this 
so  in  your  state  ?  What  are  some  of  the  show  places  to  which  you 
would  be  proud  to  take  a  visitor? 

3.  What  arguments  would  you  advance  in  favor  of  your  state  or 
the  nation  controlling  sites  of  great  natural  beauty? 

4.  "  See  America  First  "  is  a  national  slogan.    Why  ? 

INDIVIDUAL  RESPONSIBILITY 

A  good  citizen  is  as  careful  of  the  property  of  others  as 
he  is  of  his  own.     The  streets,  public  buildings,  playgrounds, 


186         THE   ELEMENTS  OF   COMMUNITY   WELFARE 

parks,  monuments,  and  so  forth,  belong  to  all  the  people. 
The  condition  in  which  they  are  kept  affects  very  much  the 
appearance  of  the  city.  We  sometimes  findfpeople  who 
have  so  little  pride  in  their  city  that  they  are  unwilling  to 
care  for  those  things  which  are  the  property  of  all.  The 
marking  of  buildings  with  chalk  is  especially  offensive. 
Sometimes  we  see  trees  along  our  streets  or  in  our  squares 
and  parks  upon  which  unthinking  persons  have  carved  their 
names  or  initials.  We  would  never  do  this  if  we  realized 
that  what  we  were  doing  was  to  carve  our  names  where 
every  one  might  read  of  our  poor  citizenship. 

How  often  we  see  people  making  short  cuts  across  lawns 
and  grass  plots  instead  of  using  walks.  Such  an  act  may 
be  merely  the  result  of  carelessness,  but  it  is  none  the  less 
destructive  of  social  order  in  that  we  are  using  for  our 
own  selfish  purpose  that  wHich  belongs  to  the  community. 
Along  with  this  would  be  the. destruction  of  flowers,  trees, 
and  shrubbery.  Some  people  delight  to  go  out  into  the 
woods  and  carry  away  armfuls  of  wild  flowers  which  will 
wither  in  their  homes  in  a  few  short  hours,  but  which,  if 
left  where  nature  placed  them,  might  be  a  delight  to 
hundreds  of  lovers  of  nature. 

The  term  Vandal  is  closely  akin  to  the  word  Hun.  The 
destruction  of  property  to  secure  souvenirs,  or  to  satisfy 
our  selfish  desires,  is  nothing  but  vandalism.  Many  fine 
public  monuments  have  been  so  mutilated.  Not  even  the 
last  resting  place  of  the  Father  of  our  country  has  been  safe 
from  the  vandals.  It  is  the  duty  of  every  good  citizen  to 
refrain  from  such  action. 


CHAPTER  XII 
COMMUNICATION 

When,  on  November  the  eleventh,  191 8,  we  awoke  to 
hear  the  ringing  of  the  bells  and  blowing  of  the  whistles 
which  announced  that  the  Armistice  had  really  been  signed, 
we  gave  very  little  thought  to  a  miracle  which  had  just 
happened.  Here  we  were  in  America,  thousand  of  miles 
away  from  the  scene  of  battle  and  separated  by  thousands 
of  miles  of  ocean,  celebrating  the  beginnings  of  peace  at 
the  same  time  with  the  people  on  the  battle  front.  So, 
too,  when  the  peace  treaty  was  signed  we  took  it  for  granted 
that  we  should  know  within  a  few  hours  that  this  event 
had  taken  place.  And  yet  had  we  been  living  a  century  ago 
it  would  have  been  weeks  and  possibly  months  before  we 
would  have  had  a  single  word  from  Europe.  The  world 
has  surely  grown  smaller  during  the  past  one  hundred 
years  when  an  event  can  be  known  within  a  few  hours 
all  over  the  entire  world.  Our  newspapers  tell  us  to-day 
of  things  which  have  occurred  within  the  past  twenty- 
four  hours  in  China  and  Japan  and  every  other  part  of  the 
civilized  world.  And  all  of  this  is  due  to  the  development 
along  the  lines  of  communication  which  has  taken  place 
within  the  past  few  years. 

One  of  our  great  city  daily  newspapers  has  already 
made  use  of  a  transatlantic  aeroplane  flight  to  deliver  a 

187 


l88         THE   ELEMENTS  OF   COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

large  number  of  copies  of  the  paper  to  the  people  of  Eng- 
land. It  so  happened  that  this  edition  contained  a  full 
report  of  a  speech  delivered  by  President  Wilson  in  New 
York  City  the  night  before.  Lord  Northcliffe,  in  a  special 
cable  congratulating  the  editor  of  the  paper  on  the  de- 
livery of  newspapers  by  aeroplane,  said,  "  I  am  convinced 
that  as  soon  as  we  get  each  other's  newspapers  across  the 
Atlantic  every  day  many  of  our  international  difficulties 
will  vanish." 

Of  especial  interest  is  the  statement  that  newspaper  air 
delivery  may  end  many  international  difficulties.  Much 
difficulty  arises  merely  because  of  a  lack  of  sympathetic 
understanding  between  people.  This  is  true,  not  only  of 
nations,  but  of  the  different  sections  of  any  nation.  If  a 
community  is  to  be  in  reality  a  community,  if  there  is  to 
be  a  commonness  of  interest  in  matters  which  concern 
all  the  people,  it  is  very  necessary  that  there  be  adequate 
means  for  prompt  and  full  communication  between  the 
parts.  It  is  only  as  we  understand  the  difficulties  and 
conditions  which  others  are  facing  that  a  full  sympathy 
can  be  developed. 

The  great  extent  of  our  country  and  its  multitudes  of 
interests  make  it  imperative  that  we  possess  adequate 
means  of  communication.  The  transaction  of  modern 
business  could  scarcely  go  on  were  it  not  for  the  means 
which  we  have  at  hand  for  prompt  communication.  Orders 
concerning  the  disposition  of  perishable  supplies  often 
must  be  gotten  from  one  place  to  another  so  quickly  that 
any  means  slower  than  the  telegraph  or  telephone  would 
result  in  loss.     Business  men  are  able  to  transact  business 


COMMUNICATION  189 

between  great  cities  such  as  New  York  and  Chicago  over 
the  telephone,  coming  to  a  clear  and  definite  understand- 
ing as  to  agreements  without  the  loss  of  time  necessary  to 
make  the  trip  between  the  two  cities.  This  in  spite  of  the 
fact  that  the  journey  may  be  made  in  comfort  and  at 
great  speed  on  one  of  the  limited  trains. 

Even  in  our  very  small  communities  we  feel  more  or  less 
dependent  upon  the  methods  of  communication  which 
are  at  hand.  The  housewife  telephones  her  order  to  the 
butcher,  grocer,  and  produce  dealer.  Relatives  and  friends 
living  in  other  parts  of  the  neighborhood  or  the  city  are 
close  at  hand  when  the  telephone  offers  the  means  of  com- 
munication. In  case  of  illness  during  the  night  or  day  we 
use  the  telephone  to  summon  the  physician.  If  a  fire  were 
to  break  out  in  our  house  it  would  be  the  quickest  way 
of  getting  in  touch  with  the  fire  station.  From  people 
living  at  a  distance  and  where  the  necessity  for  great  speed 
is  not  present  we  receive  letters  through  the  post  office. 
Or,  when  speed  is  required,  the  telegram  is  ever  at  our 
service.  Travel  on  the  high  seas  has  been  made  much 
safer  than  ever  before  by  the  installation  of  the  wireless 
on  ocean-going  vessels.  And  so  we  have  the  various  com- 
munities, local,  state,  and  national,  joined  together  by  means 
of  a  great  network  of  communication.  We  shall  consider 
a  few  of  these  more  carefully. 

POSTAL   SERVICE 

The  Postman.  — Every  one  of  us  is  familiar  with  the 
sight  of  the  postman  or  letter  carrier,  as  he  makes  his  rounds 
from  house  to  house,  carrying  his  great  bag  filled  with  all 


190         THE   ELEMENTS  OF   COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

sorts  of  mail.  Every  morning  and  at  certain  hours 
throughout  the  day  we  may  see  him  going  his  rounds, 
distributing  the  mail  or  collecting  from  the  letter  boxes 
that  which  has  been  put  there  for  collection.  He  is  one 
of  the  many  servants  who  come  to  our  homes  like  the 
milkman  and  the  baker.  But  this  man  is  different  from 
any  of  the  others  who  visit  us,  for  he  represents  the  largest 
community  of  all,  the  nation.  The  desire  for  this  form 
of  communication  is  so  great  and  its  use  so  wide-spread  that 
the  national  community  does  not  leave  it  in  the  hands  of  pri- 
vate individuals  or  private  companies,  but  sees  to  it  that  this 
work  is  attended  to  by  itself.  Not  even  that  large  commu- 
nity, the  state,  is  permitted  to  attend  to  the  postal  service. 
We  may  judge  from  this  just  how  important  the  carrying 
of  mail  must  be.  The  postman  is  an  official  of  the  United 
States  government  and  represents  the  entire  nation.  It 
is  contrary  to  law  for  any  individual  or  company  to  carry 
mail  regularly  in  the  United  States. 

The  Post-office  Department.  —  The  Post-office  De- 
partment of  the  United  States  is  the  largest  institution 
of  its  kind  in  the  world.  The  amount  of  business  trans- 
acted is  tremendous.  The  number  of  pieces  of  mail  pass- 
ing through  the  post  offices  of  the  country  during  the  year 
amounts  to  more  than  fifteen  billion  pieces.  It  requires 
more  than  three  hundred  thousand  employees  to  handle 
all  this  business.  In  charge  of  the  Post-office  Department 
we  find  the  Postmaster-General.  He  is  a  member  of  the 
President's  cabinet.  The  work  of  the  post  office  extends 
into  every  town  and  hamlet  in  the  United  States. 


COMMUNICATION  191 

A  City  Post  Office.  —  To  get  some  idea  of  the  work  in- 
volved in  the  carrying  of  our  mail  we  should  pay  a  visit 
to  one  of  our  city  post  offices.  Here  we  shall  see  the  mail 
being  brought  in  by  the  carriers  who  have  collected  it. 
If  we  visit  the  central  office  we  shall  see  the  great  bags  of 
mail  brought  from  the  sub-stations  on  trolley  cars  and  in 
motor  trucks.  We  shall  be  interested  to  watch  the  ra- 
pidity with  which  the  postal  clerks  work  as  they  cancel 
the  stamps  and  sort  the  mail.  The  work  of  casing  the 
letters  so  that  they  will  be  placed  in  the  proper  sacks  to 
arrive  at  their  destination  is  done  so  quickly  that  we  wonder 
that  many  errors  are  not  made. 

Speeding  the  Mails.  —  Every  possible  device  is  used 
to  speed  the  mail  on  its  way  —  speedy  motor  trucks,  pneu- 
matic tubes,  great  belts  to  carry  the  bags  from  one  part 
of  the  office  to  another.  Once  on  the  road  the  swiftest 
trains  carry  the  mail.  So  there  may  be  as  little  delay 
as  possible,  the  mail  trains  collect  from  stations  where 
no  stop  is  made  by  means  of  an  arm  which  is  extended 
from  the  side  of  the  rapidly  moving  car  and  catches  the 
mail  bag  which  has  been  fastened  to  an  upright  carrier, 
and  throws  it  into  the  car.  Railway  mail  clerks  sort  the 
mail  while  the  train  is  going,  thereby  using  even  the  time 
which  is  taken  for  the  actual  transportation  of  the  mail. 
Each  railway  mail  clerk  must  be  familiar  with  the  loca- 
tion of  thousands  of  post  offices.  He  must  know  just 
what  railroad  passes  each  office  and  what  the  junction 
points  are.  These  men  become  very  accurate  so  that  they 
are  able  to  develop  great  speed  in  the  sorting  of  letters. 


COMMUNICATION  ,    193 

A  record  of  pigeonholing  mail  at  the  rate  of  one  letter 
every  second,  each  one  addressed  to  a  different  post  office, 
and  doing  this  with  thousands  of  pieces  of  mail,  has  been 
made  by  some  of  the  best  of  these  clerks. 

Postal  Savings.  —  Besides  carrying  all  sorts  of  mail, 
the  Post-office  Department  also  conducts  a  postal  savings 
bank.  At  any  of  the  larger  post  offices  any  one  may  start 
an  account  with  the  government  and  deposit  savings. 
Upon  such  savings  the  government  pays  interest  like  a 
regular  savings  bank.  This  is  a  matter  of  great  conven- 
ience, especially  to  people  who  do  not  live  near  a  regular 
savings  bank.  It  also  has  the  advantage  of  the  fact  that 
the  United  States  government  is  your  banker  and  is  re- 
sponsible for  your  money.  The  sale  of  thrift  stamps 
and  war  savings  stamps  is  also  conducted  through  the 
post  office. 

Money  Orders.  —  The  transmitting  of  money  through 
the  mails  has  always  been  a  matter  of  considerable  risk. 
In  spite  of  all  the  precautions  which  have  been  placed 
around  the  handling  of  mail,  and  the  severe  penalties  at- 
tached to  tampering  with  the  mails,  occasionally  there  is 
a  loss  of  money  sent  in  envelopes.  The  post  office  sells 
at  very  low  cost  what  really  amounts  to  checks  on  the 
government.  These  are  called  money  orders.  The  send- 
ing of  such  an  order  insures  that  the  person  to  whom  the 
money  is  sent  will  receive  it. 

Parcel  Post.  —  Another  attempt  to  aid  the  people  in 
the  transaction  of  business  has  been  the  development 
of  the  parcel  post  system.     This  has  made  possible  the 


194         THE  ELEMENTS  OF   COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

shipment  of  packages,  limited  to  a  maximum  size,  through 
the  mail.  The  entire  country  has  been  divided  into  zones 
and  the  amount  charged  for  the  carrying  of  such  packages 
depends  upon  the  distance  to  which  they  are  being  sent 
and  also  upon  their  weight. 

Protecting  the  Public.  —  To  protect  the  public  from 
swindlers  who  make  use  of  the  mails  to  defraud,  the  post 
office  maintains  a  corps  of  inspectors.  These  inspectors 
run  down  the  people  who  are  cheating  the  public  through 
the  mails.  The  punishment  for  the  use  of  the  mails  to  de- 
fraud or  for  other  improper  purposes  is  usually  very  severe. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION 

i.  Pay  a  visit  to  your  city  post  office.  Write  a  description  of  what 
you  saw  on  your  visit. 

2.  How  does  a  postman  secure  his  position?  What  are  some  of 
the  necessary  qualifications? 

3.  Describe  the  proper  method  of  addressing  and  stamping  an  en- 
velope.    How  does  carelessness  in  this  matter  hinder  prompt  delivery  ? 

4.  Into  what  classes  is  mail  matter  divided?  What  matter  falls 
in  each  class  ?     What  is  the  cost  of  postage  for  each  class  ? 

5.  What  is  meant  by  special  delivery  mail? 

6.  Describe  the  method  of  opening  a  savings  account  with  the  United 
States  government  through  the  postal  savings.  What  are  the  advantages 
of  this  form  of  saving  ? 

7.  Secure  the  necessary  blank  forms  and  describe  how  you  would 
send  a  money  order. 

8.  Find  out  all  you  can  about  the  parcel  post.  Estimate  the  cost 
of  sending  certain  articles  from  your  own  to  other  cities  in  the  country. 

ELECTRICAL   COMMUNICATION 

Valuable  as  is  the  postal  system  of  our  country,  we  have 
developed  to  such  an  extent  that  a  more  rapid  system  of 


COMMUNICATION  195 

communication  has  been  necessary.  The  very  trains 
which  carry  the  mail  owe  in  part  their  safe  progress  over 
the  tracks  to  the  fact  that  it  is  possible  to  communicate 
much  more  swiftly  by  means  of  electricity  with  points  on 
the  railroad  and  set  signals  and  clear  tracks  for  the  trains 
to  pass.  The  block  signal  systems  which  are  in  use  on  our 
railroads  are  a  form  of  communication.  Then,  too,  the 
telegraph  lines  enable  the  train  de^patcher  to  control  the 
movement  of  all  the  trains  on  a  given  stretch  of  road. 

The  Telephone.  —  The  telephone  has  become  so  im- 
portant a  part  of  the  business  and  home  life  of  our  com- 
munities that  it  would  be  almost  impossible  for  us  to  get 
along  without  it.  In  practically  every  business  house 
of  any  importance  and  in  countless  homes  throu^put  our 
country  we  find  the  telephone.  Much  of  the  ^business 
of  our  nation  is  carried  on  over  it.  It  is  possible  \o\  tall 
from  coast  to  coast  by  means  of  it  or  to  the  man  at  the* 
next  desk  if  we  should  so  desire.  It  is  one  of  the  most 
frequently  used  and  convenient  means  of  communication 
at  our  disposal. 

The  Telegraph.  —  The  telegraph  is  still  a  very  vital 
part  of  our  system  of  communication.  When  the  expense 
of  verbal  communication  is  too  great  or  when  there  is  not 
the  necessity  for  instant  response  the  telegraph  plays  an 
important  part.  News  is  flashed  from  one  part  of  the 
country  to  another.  Business  transactions  are  reported. 
Lengthy  letters  may  be  sent,  and  at  very  fair  rates  too, 
if  one  uses  the  night  letter  and  is  willing  to  have  the  mes- 
sage   delivered    the    following    morning.     In    the    United 


196         THE   ELEMENTS  OF  COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

States,  unlike  many  of  the  foreign  nations,  the  telegraph 
has  been  owned  and  operated  by  private  corporations. 
During  the  war  all  forms  of  communication  and  trans- 
portation were  taken  over  by  the  national  government, 
but  with  the  conclusion  of  the  war  they  will  be  one  after 
another  returned.  There  is  a. difference  of  opinion  as  to 
whether  the  government  should  control  all  such  systems. 
This  is  a  problem  which  will  be  before  the  citizens  at  some 
time  in  the  near  future  for  their  solution. 

Ocean  Cables.  —  One  of  the  great  accomplishments 
of  the  past  century  was  the  laying  of  the  Atlantic  cable. 
Since  then  cable  lines  have  been  laid  over  the  entire  world, 
joining  all  countries.  To  these  cables  has  been  due  the 
promptness  with  which  we  have  received  word  of  happen- 
ings in  other  countries.  They  have  done  much  to  break 
down  the  barriers  of  misunderstanding  which  have  existed 
between  countries,  and  have  tended  to  make  the  world 
really  one  great  community. 

The  Wireless.  —  Among  the  more  recent  inventions 
there  is  none  which  has  proved  of  greater  interest  nor  of 
greater  worth  than  the  wireless  telegraph.  This  has 
become  a  very  important  part  of  the  communication  sys- 
tem of  the  country.  Its  greatest  service  has  been  rendered 
on  the  sea.  Ships,  equipped  with  wireless  instruments 
and  operators,  are  able  to  communicate  with  other  ships 
and  with  the  land  at  great  distances.  The  importance 
of  such  commuincation,  particularly  in  case  of  accident 
to  a  ship,  has  led  to  the  passage  of  laws  requiring  that  all 
sea-going  steamers   be  equipped  with  wireless  apparatus 


Wireless  Station  at  Sayville,  N.  Y 


198         THE   ELEMENTS   OF  COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

and  operators.  More  recent  has  been  the  invention  of 
the  wireless  telephone,  enabling  one  to  talk  over  great 
distances  without  the  use  of  intervening  wires.  Aero- 
planes have  been  equipped  with  these,  enabling  the  aviator 
to  keep  in  close  touch  with  people  on  the  ground.  Army 
planes  may  be  directed  as  to  their  duties  and  in  turn  may 
direct  artillery  fire  after  observation.  In  the  future  it  is 
likely  that  the  wireless  will  be  further  perfected  and  may 
even  displace  the  older  wire  lines, 

SUGGESTIONS   FOR  FURTHER   STUDY  AND    DISCUSSION 

1.  Pay  a  visit  to  a  telephone  exchange.  Make  a  report  to  the  class 
on  what  you  saw. 

2.  Explain  how  the  telephone  aids  in  the  management  of  a  big  busi- 
ness concern. 

3.  How  is  this  service  supplied  to  the  community? 

4.  What  control  do  the  people  of  the  state  and  nation  through  their 
organized  government  exercise  over  such  public  service  corporations 
as  the  telephone  companies? 

5.  Subject  for  debate. — Resolved  that  government  ownership  of 
such  public  service  utilities  as  the  telephone  and  the  telegraph  would 
be  of  greater  benefit  to  the  country  than  private  ownership. 

6.  Compare  the  cost  of  sending  a  telegram  over  a  distance  of  a 
thousand  miles  with  that  of  telephoning  over  the  same  distance.  Under 
what  conditions  would  you  use  one  or  the  other  of  these  means  of  com- 
munication ? 

7.  If  any  boy  or  girl  in  the  class  owns  a  telegraph  instrument  or  a 
wireless  apparatus  they  might  describe  how  the  instrument  is  worked. 
It  would  be  interesting  if  some  of  the  apparatus  could  be  brought  to 
class  to  illustrate  the  description. 

NEWSPAPERS 
We  have  gotten  so  accustomed  to  having  our  morning 
and  evening  newspapers  that  we  take  them  as  a  matter  of 


COMMUNICATION  199 

course.  Indeed  it  would  seem  strange  to  us  if  they  were 
not  left  at  our  door.  Like  many  other  of  the  most  valued 
things  in  life  they  are  so  common  as  to  be  taken  for  granted. 
If,  however,  we  should  suddenly  be  deprived  of  our  papers 
and  be  compelled  to  go  for  many  days  without  seeing  them 
we  should  realize  how  important  a  part  they  play  in  our 
lives.  It  is  wonderful  to  think  that  for  a  few  pennies  we 
are  able  to  buy  a  paper  containing  news  from  all  over  the 
world,  and  read  of  things  which  have  happened  within 
the  past  twenty-four  hours  in  lands  thousands  of  miles 
from  our  own. 

Collecting  the  News.  —  While  we  are  reading  this  book, 
reporters  and  correspondents  representing  the  newspapers 
which  we  shall  read  this  evening  are  scattered  not  only 
all  through  the  city  and  state,  but  throughout  the  nation 
and  even  the  whole  world,  searching  for  news.  Every 
possible  means  of  communication  will  be  used  to  get  this 
news  to  the  newspaper  office.  It  will  come  over  the 
telephone,  by  telegraph,  by  wireless,  by  ocean  cable,  by 
letter.  If  there  is  an  accident,  a  fire,  a  riot,  a  public 
meeting,  or  any  matter  of  interest  going  on,  there  we  shall 
be  sure  to  find  the  reporters  getting  the  news  for  us.  In 
the  council  chambers  of  the  city,  in  the  state  legislature,  in 
the  halls  of  Congress,  reporters  are  finding  out  what  is  going 
on,  taking  down  speeches  in  shorthand,  discovering  what 
legislation  is  being  made,  and  telegraphing  it  to  their  papers. 

The  Associated  Press.  —  All  of  this  is  very  expensive. 
In  fact  it  would  be  possible  for  but  a  few  of  the  papers 
of  our  country  to  begin  to  undertake  the  expense  of  getting 


200         THE   ELEMENTS   OF   COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

all  the  news  if  they  had  to  go  after  it  alone.  In  order  to 
make  it  possible  that  even  smaller  papers  receive  all  the 
news  the  newspapers  have  formed  organizations  like  the 
Associated  Press.  The  service  of  such  an  organization 
will  extend  over  the  entire  world.  Instead  of  having  a 
reporter  for  each  paper  one  reporter  gets  the  news  which 
he  sends  to  some  central  office  from  which  place  it  is  des- 
patched to  the  various  newspapers.  This  co-operation 
makes  possible  the  wonderful  network  of  news  collectors 
which  covers  the  world. 

Influencing  Public  Opinion.  —  Many  people  do  practi- 
cally no  other  reading  than  that  of  the  newspaper. 
Hence  the  newspaper  becomes  one  of  the  great  factors 
in  education.  What  one  reads  determines  to  no  small 
degree  what  one's  opinions  will  be.  So  we  see  that  a  news- 
paper plays  a  very  important  part  in  forming  one's  opin- 
ions. Because  of  this  the  newspaper  has  become  one  of 
the  most  powerful  agencies  in  the  world.  Often  when 
we  hear  people  expressing  opinions  on  this  or  that  matter 
of  public  welfare  we  can  make  a  fair  guess  as  to  which 
of  the  newspapers  of  our  city  they  have  been  reading.  It 
will  be  readily  seen  that  the  newspaper  is  one  of  the  chief 
means  of  forming  public  opinion  in  a  community.  If  the 
editors  are  honest  in  their  beliefs  and  have  the  best  inter- 
ests of  the  community  and  the  nation  at  heart  and  print 
the  truth  their  paper  may  be  the  means  of  developing 
the  highest  ideals  of  good  citizenship  and  patriotism. 

Ownership  and  Control.  —  Newspapers  are  owned  and 
controlled  by  private  individuals  or  corporations.     In  times 


COMMUNICATION  201 

of  war  or  of  great  national  emergency,  however,  the  national 
government  may  step  in  and  determine  what  news  may 
and  what  may  not  be  printed.  This  is  called  censorship. 
It  is  possible  that  a  paper  might  unintentionally  print 
information  which  would  be  of  assistance  to  the  enemy, 
as  for  instance  the  time  and  place  of  the  sailing  of  trans- 
ports carrying  troops  and  ammunition.  This  might  re- 
sult in  very  serious  consequences.  At  such  times  all  items 
of  communication  passing  over  the  wires  or  through  the 
mail  may  be  censored.  The  American  people  have  learned 
that  where  the  welfare  of  the  whole  is  concerned  the  priv- 
ileges of  the  few  if  necessary  should  be  set  aside. 

OTHER  MEANS   OF   COMMUNICATION 

Lectures  and  Debates.  —  There  are  many  other  agencies 
which  play  a  part  in  the  communication  of  a  community. 
In  order  that  the  people  of  the  country  might  receive  at 
first  hand  information  concerning  the  League  of  Nations 
and  the  Treaty  of  Peace,  President  Wilson  made  a  number 
of  addresses  in  various  parts  of  the  country  on  this  sub- 
ject. Of  course  but  a  small  part  of  the  people  could  hear 
him,  but  the  newspapers  printed  what  he  had  to  say  in  full, 
and  the  fact  that  the  President  had  just  been  speaking 
led  many  people,  who  would  not  otherwise  have  done  so, 
to  read  his  speeches.  This  is  the  way  in  which  many 
of  our  leaders  of  thought  get  their  ideas  before  the  people. 
The  same  result  is  also  accomplished  at  times  by  hold- 
ing debates  between  men  and  women  of  wide  reputation. 

Circulars  and  Reports.  —  Another  method  of  getting 
news  to  the  people  is  by  the  publication  of  circulars  and 


202         THE   ELEMENTS  OF  COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

reports.  This  very  often  is  the  form  which  is  used  in  ad- 
vertising. At  times,  however,  it  is  used  to  inform  the  public 
of  certain  matters.  For  example,  new  city  ordinances 
concerning  the  method  of  waste  disposal  will  be  printed 
on  circulars  and  distributed  to  every  home  in  the  city. 
The  government  also  makes  use  of  this  method  to  get  cer- 
tain ideas  before  the  people.  For  example,  pamphlets 
will  be  printed  giving  instructions  as  to  how  to  fight  a  cer- 
tain pest  which  may  be  destroying  crops.  These  are 
then  widely  distributed  over  the  infested  area  and  thus 
the  information  reaches  the  people  for  whom  it  was  in- 
tended. 

SUGGESTIONS   FOR  FURTHER   STUDY   AND    DISCUSSION 

i.  Examine  copies  of  the  daily  newspapers  of  your  city  and  make 
a  list  of  the  types  of  subjects  which  are  treated  in  one  day's  issue.  Note 
especially  any  news  from  a  distance.  What  is  the  date  of  the  despatch  ? 
How  far  has  the  news  traveled  in  order  to  reach  us? 

2.  Make  a  visit  to  the  printing  rooms  of  a  newspaper.  Report  on 
what  you  saw. 

3.  Explain  how  the  newspapers  of  a  community  may  influence  the 
results  of  an  election. 

4.  What  is  the  difference  between  the  type  of  communication  which 
we  receive  through  the  newspapers  and  that  of  good  magazines  and 
periodicals  ? 

5.  Explain  how  books  and  libraries  are  means  of  communication. 

6.  How  do  public  lectures,  speeches,  and  debates  serve  as  means 
of  communication? 


CHAPTER  XIII 
TRANSPORTATION 

The  story-tellers  of  olden  times  were  never  wanting 
of  an  interested  and  attentive  audience  when  they  told 
their  stories  of  travel.  But  most  of  all  did  their  hearers 
sit  in  breathless  attention,  when,  letting  their  imagina- 
tion go,  they  invented  stories  of  wonderful  seven  league 
boots  and  magic  carpets.  For  people  have  ever  enjoyed 
hearing  about  that  which  was  evidently  impossible.  To 
hear  then  of  being  whirled  at  tremendous  speed  over  land 
and  sea,  of  seeing  strange  lands  and  strange  people,  was 
of  all  stories  most  thrilling. 

Yet  when  I  open  my  morning  paper  I  am  not  surprised 
to  read  that  an  aeroplane  has  just  landed  near  New  York, 
after  having  made  a  flight  across  the  Atlantic  Ocean  from 
the  coast  of  Ireland,  making  but  one  stop  and  that  at 
Newfoundland.  Nor  am  I  astonished  to  hear  that  a 
giant  dirigible  has  crossed  and  re-crossed  this  same  ocean 
carrying  passengers  and  some  freight.  Of  course  not, 
for  have  we  not  gotten  accustomed  to  such  things  as  air 
mail  delivery  between  New  York  and  Washington,  Chicago 
and  our  other  cities,  cross-continental  flights,  and  delivery 
of  goods  by  aeroplane  ?  If  only  those  old  spinners  of 
tales  could  be  with  us  to-day  they  would  get  enough  new 
ideas  in  a  day  to  keep  them  busy  for  a  year. 

203 


204         THE   ELEMENTS  OF   COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

We  have  talked  of  our  nation  as  being  "  Many  in  one," 
but  this  would  have  been  impossible  in  a  country  so  large 
as  ours  had  it  not  been  for  the  tremendous  strides  which 
have  been  made  in  the  development  of  facilities  for  com- 
munication and  transportation.  Even  our  smaller  com- 
munities, the  cities  themselves,  have  so  far  outgrown  their 
original  limits  that  without  our  modern  methods  of  getting 
from  place  to  place  it  would  be  difficult  for  community 
'life  to  run  smoothly.  Let  us  look  at  the  transportation 
problem  in  our  community. 

STREETS  AND   HIGHWAYS 

In  the  days  when  our  oldest  American  cities  were  young 
there  was  very  little  need  for  means  of  rapid  transporta- 
tion. The  cities  were  small  and  to  go  from  one  part  to 
another  meant  just  a  short  walk.  When  heavy  articles 
had  to  be  carried  from  place  to  place  a  horse  and  wagon 
was  sufficient.  Between  the  cities  as  time  went  on  the 
old  stagecoaches  made  their  weekly  trips.  The  roads 
were  poor,  in  stormy  weather  impassable.  The  streets 
of  the  city  after  a  heavy  rain  amounted  to  not  much  more 
than  mud-holes.  If  the  individual  householder  felt  so 
disposed,  he  might  make  a  fairly  decent  sidewalk  in  front 
of  his  own  home,  but  it  was  just  as  likely  that  his  next 
door  neighbor  would  be  satisfied  to  let  matters  rest  as  they 
were.  The  need  for  street  paving  did  not  arise  until  the 
City  began  to  grow  somewhat  in  size,  and,  business  on 
the  streets  increasing,  street  paving  of  some  sort  became 
imperative. 

To-day  we  have  found  that  the  relation  between  the 


TRANSPORTATION  205 

condition  of  our  streets  and  transportation  is  a  very  real 
one.  The  greater  the  traffic  on  an  unpaved  street  or  road 
the  more  the  road  will  be  cut  up.  Our  modern  heavy 
trucks,  for  example,  are  hard  enough  on  a  smooth  strong 
surface,  but  an  unpaved  one  they  soon  cut  to  pieces 
so  that  it  quickly  becomes  impassable.  Then,  too,  the 
poorer  the  road  the  more  difficult  becomes  the  task  of 
driving  even  motor  driven  vehicles  along  it.  Heavy  trucks 
tend  to  become  stuck  in  the  mud,  lighter  vehicles  carry 
smaller  loads  and  are  therefore  more  expensive,  move- 
ment is  much  slower,  thereby  losing  time.  In  fact,  the  busi- 
ness of  our  great  modern  cities  or  even  of  our  smaller  ones 
could  not  be  transacted  under  such  conditions. 

Paving  and  Repairing.  — One  of  the  tasks,  then,  which 
confront  every  community  is  to  provide  for  the  paving 
and  repair  of  its  streets  and  highways.  This  is  expensive, 
for  good  roads  cost  money,  and  poor  roads  are  even  more 
expensive.  Our  cities  with  their  hundreds,  and  even 
thousands,  of  miles  of  streets  have  a  big  problem  on  their 
hands.  In  most  of  our  cities  to-day  the  older  paving 
which  was  satisfactory  fifty  years  ago  has  for  the  most 
part  been  replaced  with  modern  paving. 

We  do  not  find  all  the  streets  of  our  city  paved  in  the 
same  way.  In  sections  where  the  streets  are  constantly 
used  by  heavy  trucks  and  teams  we  frequently  find  the 
paving  done  with  heavy  granite  blocks.  These  resist 
wear  and  at  the  same  time  offer  the  necessary  hold  which 
such  traffic  demands.  These  streets  are  noisy,  especially 
when  wagons  with  their  iron  tires  are  being  driven  along 


206         THE   ELEMENTS  OF   COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

them.  Boulevards  and  residence  streets  are  not  subject 
to  the  same  wear  and  tear,  and  may  therefore  be  paved 
with  a  smoother  substance,  such  as  asphalt.  Recently 
in  many  of  our  cities  the  granite  blocks  have  been  replaced 
with  wood  blocks  which  have  been  treated  with  a  coal- 
tar  product.  They  make  a  strong  and  quiet  pavement 
but  present  a  difficulty  in  that  the  tar  oozes  from  the 
blocks  in  hot  weather. 

Once  paved  the  expense  of  the  street  does  not  stop. 
Because  of  the  traffic  there  is  need  for  constant  repair,  so 
that  this,  too,  is  a  source  of  considerable  expense  to  the  com- 
munity. Good  streets,  however,  are  so  vital  to  the  busi- 
ness life  of  the  city  that  the  expense  is  gladly  met.  This 
is  sometimes  done  by  bonding  the  city  and  sometimes  by 
taxation.    These  methods  will  be  discussed  in  a  later  chapter. 

Street  Cleaning.  —  In  order  that  the  streets  may  be 
kept  fit  and  safe  for  use  there  is  the  necessity  for  clean- 
ing them.  A  heavy  snowfall,  unless  precautions  are  taken, 
will  be  likely  to  block  the  traffic  in  the  city  streets  for  days 
at  a  time.  Since  business  must  go  on  in  spite  of  the  snow, 
it  is  necessary  that  it  be  removed  as  quickly  as  possible. 
In  the  business  sections  of  our  cities,  even  during  the  snow- 
storm, we  may  see  gangs  of  street  cleaners  at  work  getting 
rid  of  the  snow.  It  is  collected  and  either  carted  away 
in  trucks  and  thrown  into  the  river,  or  emptied  into  the 
manholes  which  lead  directly  into  the  sewers.  The  car 
tracks  are  kept  clear  of  snow  by  the  use  of  great  sweepers, 
which  are  started  with  the  first  snowfall  and  kept  working 
until  all  the  snow  has  been  cleared  away. 


TRANSPORTATION 


207 


Street  Lighting.  —  Transportation  at  night  is  just  as 
easy  as  during  the  day,  owing  to  the  splendid  manner  in 
which  the  streets  are  lighted.  The  use  of  the  powerful 
electric  arc  lights  at  street  corners  and  in  the  middle  of  the 
blocks  makes  our  main  streets  almost  as  light  as  day. 


Copyright,  Weister  Co. 

Part  of  the  Columbia  River  Highway,  Oregon 

State  and  National  Highways.  —  Just  as  it  is  important 
that  the  streets  or  highways  of  the  city  be  paved  and 
cleaned  and  lighted,  so  also  is  it  necessary  that  the  high- 
ways or  roads  connecting  the  various  towns  and  cities  of 
our  state  and  nation  be  properly  maintained.  By  refer- 
ence to  our  histories  we  shall  be  able  to  find  the  story  of 
the  beginnings  of  our  great  state  and  national  highways. 
People  in  the  cities  have  come  to  realize  that  it  is  a  matter 
of  importance  to  them  what  kind  of  roads  exist  even  in 


208         THE   ELEMENTS   OF  COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

the  outlying  sections  of  the  state.  Bad  roads  mean  poor 
transportation.  This  means  that  it  costs  the  farmer  more 
to  get  his  products  to  the  railroad  station  from  which 
they  are  shipped  to  the  city.  In  the  end  the  people  pay 
for  this  by  being  required  to  pay  the  additional  cost  of 
transportation.  Then,  too,  the  wide-spread  use  of  the 
automobile  has  brought  to  the  attention  of  the  city  dweller 
the  need  for  improvement  of  the  state  highways.  Pres- 
sure has  been  brought  to  bear  on  members  of  the  state 
legislature  by  automobile  associations,  and  others,  which 
has  resulted  in  increased  attention  to  the  condition  of  the 
roads  of  the  state  and  in  the  construction  of  others.  The 
old  toll  road  is  fast  disappearing  and  in  its  place  has  come 
a  well-paved  and  splendidly  kept  state  or  national  highway. 
Along  these  roads  we  find  not  only  pleasure  cars,  but  also 
business  cars,  and  the  great  automobile  trucks,  which  are 
gradually  building  up  a  large  and  profitable  business  in 
carrying  freight  from  city  to  city. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION 

i.  How  are  the  streets  of  your  neighborhood  paved?  For  what 
type  of  transportation  are  they  best  fitted? 

2.  According  to  the  ordinances  of  your  city  what  are  the  duties  of 
the  householder  in  regard  to  the  paving  and  care  of  the  sidewalk  in 
front  of  his  home? 

3.  What  are  some  of  the  city  ordinances  concerning  obstructions 
on  the  sidewalk  and  in  the  street? 

4.  If  in  order  to  make  certain  alterations  and  repairs  to  my  property 
it  were  necessary  for  me  to  have  a  pile  of  lumber,  bricks,  sand,  or  other 
building  material  in  the  street  before  my  house,  what  would  be  the  re- 
quirements with  which  I  should  have  to  comply? 

5.  May  a  householder  be  held  responsible  for  injury  to  a  pedestrian 
caused  by  a  defect  in  the  paving  before  his  house  ? 


TRANSPORTATION  209 

6.  Heavy  trucks  are  usually  not  permitted  on  boulevards  and  park- 
ways.    Why  ? 

7.  How  is  a  heavy  fall  of  snow  likely  to  interfere  with  street  railway 
transportation?    What  measures  are  adopted  to  prevent  this? 

8.  What  is  the  Lincoln  highway?  the  Dixie  highway?  Indicate 
on  an  outline  map  of  the  United  States  the  cities  which  they  connect. 

9.  Explain  how  the  automobile  has  been  the  cause  of  a  marked  im- 
provement in  the  roads  of  our  country. 

ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS 

City  Lines.  —  In  the  early  morning  hours  and  again 
late  in  the  afternoon,  it  is  a  familiar  sight  to  see  the  crowded 
cars  carrying  the  workers  to  and  from  their  places  of  em- 
ployment. If  we  have  been  in  the  heart  of  the  business 
section  of  a  large  city  at  the  time  of  closing  the  stores 
and  offices,  we  know  how  difficult  it  is  to  get  even  a  place 
to  stand  on  the  cars.  And  this  in  spite  of  the  fact  that 
the  cars  are  running  very  close  together.  The  thousands 
of  people  who  work  in  these  business  sections  are  all  try- 
ing to  get  home  at  about  the  same  time,  and  the  result 
is  a  great  congestion  of  traffic.  We  little  wonder  at  this 
when  we  see  how  full  the  cars  are  at  times  other  than 
the  rush  hours.  Let  us  see  what  efforts  are  being  made 
to  enable  all  these  people  to  reach  their  homes  promptly. 

Surface.  —  First  of  all  there  are  the  surface  lines.  Large 
cars,  capable  of  carrying  a  hundred  or  more  passengers, 
follow  each  other  in  quick  succession  along  the  street. 
They  are  bound  for  all  different  sections  of  the  city,  but  in 
order  to  get  their  passengers  they  have  been  so  routed  as 
to  run  along  one  or  more  of  the  main  business  streets. 
After  they  have  gotten  fairly  well  out  of  this  zone  they 


2IO         THE   ELEMENTS   OF  COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

will  switch  off  to  the  several  sections  of  the  city  to  which 
they  are  bound.  The  stream  of  cars  is  never  ending. 
We  wonder  where  they  all  come  from.  We  know  that 
the  same  sight  may  be  seen  on  many  streets.  We  wonder 
where  the  people  who  are  crowding  the  cars  have  been 
all  day,  but  when  we  look  at  the  great  office  buildings 
and  department  stores  we  understand.  Many  of  these 
people  live  miles  away  from  their  places  of  business  and 
have  long  rides  on  the  car  before  they  will  reach  home. 

Subway.  —  Beneath  us  we  hear  the  rumbling  of  the 
subway  trains  as  they  rush  by.  Six,  eight,  or  more  great 
cars,  each  as  large  as  a  railway  coach,  are  being  driven 
along  at  high  speed.  Each  train  is  crowded  to  its  capacity. 
The  high  speed,  together  with  the  few  stops  made,  in- 
sures that  those  who  are  so  fortunate  as  to  be  able  to  make 
use  of  these  trains  will  arrive  home  long  before  passengers 
on  the  surface  cars  have  traveled  much  shorter  distances. 

Elevated.  —  Overhead  are  the  elevated  tracks  along 
which  travel  the  elevated  trains.  The  platforms  of  the 
stations  are  filled  with  passengers  eagerly  waiting  for 
their  train  to  come  along  so  that  they  may  get  started 
homeward.  These  trains,  too,  make  much  better  time 
than  the  surface  cars,  for,  although  they  stop  frequently 
at  stations  to  discharge  and  take  on  passengers,  the  sta- 
tions are  far  enough  apart  to  permit  good  time  to  be  made. 

And  so  the  city  workers  are  carried  to  their  homes. 
What  a  host,  not  to  mention  the  walkers  and  those  who 
will  be  carried  to  their  residences  in  automobiles !  Were 
it  not  for  the  splendid  systems  of  rapid  transit  the  great 


TRANSPORTATION  211 

business  life  of  our  cities  could  not  be  carried  on.  Thou- 
sands of  these  people  find  employment  in  the  business 
houses  along  a  single  city  block.  Their  homes  may  be 
miles  away.  Yet  they  are  able  to  go  back  and  forth  each 
day  in  comparatively  short  time  when  the  distance  which 
many  of  them  have  to  travel  is  considered. 

The    Development    of    City    Transportation.  —  It    has 

not  been  very  many  years  since  the  one  method  of  con- 
veyance in  our  cities  was  the  horse  car.  The  small  cars 
drawn  by  one  or  two  horses  carried  the  traveling  public 
at  what  would  seem  to  us  to  be  a  very  slow  rate  of  speed. 
Cities  in  those  days  were  not  to  be  compared  to  those  of 
the  present  day.  And  then  the  people  did  not  travel  about 
the  city  so  much.  It  was  customary  for  a  man  to  select 
a  home  as  near  as  possible  to  his  place  of  business  so  that 
he  could  walk  to  and  from  his  work. 

This  business  of  carrying  the  public,  although  a  public 
service,  was  done  by  individual  citizens.  It  was  found  to  be 
a  profitable  business.  The  tracks,  however,  upon  which 
the  cars  ran  were  laid  in  the  city  streets  and  this  meant 
the  tearing  up  of  the  street  for  the  purpose  of  laying  them. 
It  also  meant  that  once  the  tracks  had  been  laid  and  the 
cars  began  to  be  operated  the  people  who  owned  the  com- 
pany had  in  their  control  a  very  valuable  possession.  No 
other  company  could  run  cars  over  the  first  company's 
track,  the  streets  were  not  wide  enough  to  permit  the 
laying  of  additional  tracks,  and  so  this  company  had  full 
control  over  all  the  passenger  traffic  carried  on  on  that 
particular  street.     The  individual  or  group  of  individuals 


212         THE  ELEMENTS   OF   COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

who  had  been  given  permission  to  use  the  street  for  this 
purpose  had  indeed  received  a  valuable  gift.  The  city, 
however,  needed  the  service  which  these  people  were  ren- 
dering to  it,  and  so  it  willingly  gave  away  the  right  to  use 
its  streets,  usually  in  return  for  the  company  keeping  the 
street  between  the  tracks  in  repair. 

Then  came  the  invention  of  the  trolley  car  with  its  over- 
head wire.  It  was  soon  seen  that  the  day  of  the  old  horse 
car  had  ended.  Even  the  cable  car,  which  was  in  use  in 
some  places  and  was  thought  to  be  a  great  invention,  was 
soon  displaced .  The  trolley  car  came  at  a  time  when  the  city 
was  expanding  and  needed  just  this  sort  of  assistance, 
and  so  meeting  an  increasing  demand,  the  use  of  these  cars 
extended  until  they  covered  the  entire  city. 

Franchises.  —  The  streets,  however,  are  valuable  to 
the  people  of  the  city  and  are  not  to  be  given  away  lightly. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  service  which  the  electric  car  com- 
panies are  able  to  offer  is  one  which  the  city  of  to-day 
could  not  do  without,  and  which,  if  it  were  not  secured  from 
private  corporations,  the  city  would  have  to  supply  for 
itself.  In  cities,  therefore,  where  the  municipality  does 
not  own  and  operate  its  own  car  lines,  we  find  this  service 
rendered  by  a  corporation  or  company.  The  right  to  lay 
tracks  and  operate  cars  over  the  city  streets  is  spoken  of 
as  a  franchise. 

Such  a  franchise,  permitting  the  use  of  the  city  streets 
for  the  purpose  of  installing  and  operating  electric  car 
lines,  is  a  very  valuable  thing  indeed.  The  tremendous 
numbers  of  people  who  use  the  cars  every  day  make  such 


TRANSPORTATION  2 13 

operating  a  very  profitable  business.  It  often  happens, 
however,  that  a  company  controlling  the  car  system  of  a 
city  will  give  as  an  excuse  for  poor  service  rendered,  such 
as  not  running  a  sufficient  number  of  cars  or  failing  to 
install  more  modern  cars,  the  fact  that  they  are  not  mak- 
ing money.  This  is  sometimes  due  to  existing  companies 
having  come  into  being  by  absorbing  former  companies 
which  in  the  earlier  days  had  secured  permits  to  use  the 
city  streets.  The  new  company  upon  taking  over  the 
lines  from  the  older  ones  often  agrees  to  pay  very  large 
dividends.  Since  the  stock  in  both  old  and  new  com- 
panies is  frequently  owned  by  the  same  people  it  is  like 
taking  money  from  your  right-hand  pocket  and  putting 
it  into  your  left.  That  is,  the  owners  of  the  new  com- 
pany receive  the  money  paid  as  dividends  to  the  stock- 
holders of  the  old  companies.  As  this  often  takes  up 
almost  all  of  the  earnings  of  the  new  company,  it  appears 
on  the  surface  that  it  is  not  making  money  or  that  it  is 
being  run  at  a  loss.  This  is  sometimes  taken  as  an  excuse 
for  raising  the  fare.  The  citizens  should  acquaint  themselves 
with  the  conditions  existing  in  the  company  controlling 
the  car  systems  of  their  cities  so  as  to  know  whether  or 
not  there  is  reason  for  fare  increases  or  continued  poor 
service. 

In  some  cities  the  franchise  gives  away  to  the  company 
the  use  of  the  city  streets  for  many  years  or  even  forever. 
This  is  a  very  unfortunate  condition  and  one  which  should 
be  remedied  by  a  change  in  the  state  law  if  necessary. 
People  have  no  right  to  enter  into  such  contracts  which  will 
bind  forever  those  who  are  to  come  after  them. 


214         THE   ELEMENTS  OF  COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

Municipal  Ownership.  —  In  some  cities  municipal 
ownership  and  control  of  the  street  railways  has  been 
undertaken.  If  the  business  of  operating  the  cars  is  kept 
out  of  politics  and  placed  upon  a  purely  business  basis, 
it  can  be  done  with  great  success.  Expert  management 
of  the  lines  unhampered  by  political  influence  may  mean 
for  a  city  the  very  best  car  service  which  can  be  secured. 
In  this  case  the  people  are  the  stockholders  in  the  corpora- 
tion. The  dividends  or  earnings  may  be  returned  to  them 
in  a  number  of  ways.  For  example,  the  earnings  may  be 
turned  into  the  city  treasury  and  so  made  to  assist  in  the 
running  of  the  city,  resulting  in  a  cutting  down  of  taxa- 
tion. Or,  the  rate  of  fare  on  the  cars  may  be  reduced  so 
that  the  people  travel  at  a  lower  fare.  Or,  the  earnings 
may  be  used  to  improve  and  extend  the  service.  There 
are  arguments  for  and  against  municipal  ownership. 

Where  the  street  railways  of  a  city  are  not  under  munic- 
ipal ownership,  we  usually  find  a  Director  of  City  Transit 
who  is  a  member  of  the  Mayor's  Cabinet,  and  who  looks 
after  the  interests  of  the  people. 

Interurban  Lines.  —  The  electric  railway  has  proved 
to  be  so  efficient  that  we  find  that  it  has  extended  its  use- 
fulness far  beyond  the  city  limits.  All  over  the  country 
high  speed  electric  lines  connect  city  with  city,  and  town 
with  town.  Heavy  cars,  rivaling  those  of  the  steam  rail- 
roads in  comfort  and  ease  of  riding,  carry  passengers  from 
place  to  place.  Running  at  frequent  intervals  and  on  a 
definite  time  schedule,  they  play  a  very  important  part  in 
transportation.     These  lines  have  done  much  to  develop 


TRANSPORTATION  215 

the  suburban  and  outlying  sections.  The  farmer  now 
feels  that  he  is  much  nearer  the  city  and  often  comes  to 
town  to  make  his  purchases.  People  engaged  in  business 
in  the  city  are  able  to  live  in  the  country  by  making  use 
of  these  high  speed  lines.  Some  of  our  steam  railroads 
have  found  that  it  is  more  profitable  to  use  electricity  to 
run  the  local  passenger  trains  which  make  frequent  stops. 
They  have  electrified  their  lines  around  the  large  cities, 
at  the  same  time  reducing  considerably  the  smoke  nuisance. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY  AND    DISCUSSION 

1.  Describe  how  you  would  go  by  means  of  the  electric  cars  from 
your  section  of  the  city  to  the  principal  business  and  manufacturing 
sections. 

2.  What  are  the  needs  of  your  community  for  transportation  to  other 
parts  of  the  city  which  have  not  as  yet  been  satisfied?  How  could 
this  be  done  ? 

3.  If  there  is  an  elevated  or  a  subway  system  in  your  city,  indicate 
what  parts  of  the  city  are  served. 

4.  What  are  the  present  plans  of  your  community  for  improved 
transportation  facilities?    How  will  they  be  obtained? 

5.  By  whom  are  the  various  systems  of  street  railway  transporta- 
tion in  your  city  owned  and  controlled  ?  What  are  the  rates  of  fare  ? 
Is  the  service  satisfactory?  Compare  the  service  rendered  to  your 
city  with  that  received  by  other  cities  of  about  the  same  size. 

6.  Have  a  debate  on  the  subject  of  municipal  ownership  of  street 
railways. 

STEAM   RAILWAYS 

Extent.  —  If  we  turn  to  a  railway  map  of  our  state  and 
then  to  one  of  the  nation,  we  find  that  the  entire  country 
is  covered  with  a  network  of  tracks.  Around  the  large 
cities,  where  the  lines  converge,  they  are  so  thick  as  to  be 
indistinguishable  on  the  map.     Almost  every  town  seems 


TRANSPORTATION  2 1 7 

to  be  on  some  railroad.  There  are  more  than  a  quarter 
of  a  million  miles  of  railroad  in  the  United  States  to-day. 
So  necessary  to  our  very  life  has  it  become  that  if  the  rail- 
roads were  to  suddenly  discontinue  service  there  would  be 
great  likelihood  of  famine  in  our  cities.  If  they  were  to  be 
permanently  stopped,  city  life  as  it  is  to-day  would  for  the 
most  part  disappear,  for  people  would  be  driven  to  the 
country  and  to  farming  so  that  they  would  be  able  to  get 
food.  The  railroads  are  the  arteries  of  the  life  of  the 
country.  Over  them  come  the  food  products  of  the  na- 
tion. Much  of  the  business  life  of  the  country  is  de- 
pendent upon  their  service. 

Ownership.  —  These  great  railroad  systems  are  owned 
by  individual  members  of  the  community.  The  short  lines 
which  were  built  at  the  beginning  of  railroad  construction 
were  soon  found  to  be  a  very  fine  investment.  The  railroad 
has  always  with  few  exceptions  been  a  splendid  paying  propo- 
sition. To  help  develop  certain  sections  of  the  country, 
Congress  made  grants  of  land  to  people  who  would  build 
a  railroad  into  these  sections.  It  was  not  realized  at  the 
time  how  valuable  this  land  was  soon  to  become.  Once 
the  railroads  were  in  operation,  the  value  of  these  lands 
began  to  increase.  Then,  too,  the  more  the  new  country 
developed  the  greater  was  the  amount  of  business  which 
came  to  the  railroad.  Certain  men  of  wealth  and  keen  busi- 
ness foresight  realized  the  tremendous  money-making  possi- 
bilities of  the  railroads  and  set  about  undertaking  to  gain 
control  of  them.  Little  by  little  they  secured  control  of 
the  vast  railroad  interests  of  the  country  and  made  the 


2l8         THE   ELEMENTS   OF   COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

beginnings  of  what  we  know  to-day  as  the  financial  back- 
bone of  the  country.  It  is  sometimes  called  "  big  busi- 
ness." 

Management.  —  Railroads  have  become  so  necessary 
a  part  of  the  community  life  of  the  entire  nation,  that  it 
is  impossible  to  permit  them  to  transact  their  business  in 
any  manner  that  they  see  fit.  In  the  hands  of  a  few  finan- 
ciers, and  uncontrolled,  the  railroad  could  charge  exorbi- 
tant rates  and  the  public  would  have  to  pay.  They  could 
descriminate  against  certain  sections  of  the  country,  giv- 
ing preference  to  the  section  in  which  they  were  inter- 
ested, because  of  other  businesses  which  they  were  operat- 
ing or  land  which  they  wished  to  develop.  With  their 
enormous  wealth  they  would  have  the  people  of  the  country 
entirely  under  their  control.  It  was  such  attempts  that 
led  to  federal  control  of  the  railroad  rates  in  interstate 
traffic.  When  two  or  more  railroads  under  different  man- 
agement were  serving  the  same  cities,  they  would  frequently 
"pool "  their  interests.  That  is,  they  would  agree  to  divide 
among  the  companies  all  the  earnings  made  by  serving  these 
cities.  When  this  was  done,  the  railroads  did  not  care 
whether  they  served  the  public  well  or  not,  for  their  earn- 
ings would  be  the  same  in  the  end. 

Control.  —  In  order  to  control  the  business  of  the  com- 
mon carriers,  as  railroads  are  called,  Congress  established 
the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission.  Regulating  as 
it  does  such  a  tremendous  amount  of  business,  it  has  be- 
come one  of  the  most  important  branches  of  the  govern- 
ment.    It  controls  concerns  engaged  in  interstate  trans- 


TRANSPORTATION  2 1 9 

portation,  steamship  as  well  as  railroad.  Every  change 
in  rates  and  practically  every  other  act  of  importance  of 
railroad,  steamship,  telegraph,  telephone,  and  other  simi- 
lar organizations  must  be  approved  by  the  commission.  It 
interprets  the  interstate  commerce  laws  for  shippers  and 
carriers ;  it  hears  complaints  against  common  carriers, 
and  settles  differences  between  them  and  their  patrons ; 
it  supervises  the  accounts  of  common  carriers ;  requires 
railroads  to  make  report  of  accidents ;  and  in  general 
exercises  such  supervision  and  control  as  will  make  for 
the  public  welfare. 

SUGGESTIONS   FOR  FURTHER   STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION 

1.  Name  the  railroad  lines  by  which  your  city  is  served.  By  whom 
are  these  railroads  owned  and  controlled? 

2.  Trace  out  on  a  railroad  map  of  the  United  States  the  principal 
routes  of  trade. 

3.  Why  is  it  so  important  that  a  regular  schedule  of  trains,  both 
freight  and  passenger,  be  maintained  between  the  different  parts  of  the 
country  ? 

4.  What  would  happen  if  the  railroads  were  to  double  their  freight 
charges  on  the  various  articles  of  food? 

5.  How  are  passenger  and  freight  rates  regulated  and  controlled 
in  the  United  States  ? 

6.  Where  does  Congress  get  its  power  to  control  commerce  and 
transportation  ? 

7.  What  is  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission?  What  does  it 
do? 

8.  Make  a  list  of  the  arguments  for  and  against  government  owner- 
ship of  railroads. 

NATIONAL   INTERESTS 

National  Interest.  —  The  successful  completion  of  the 
Panama  Canal  is  but  one  of  the  evidences  that  the  national 


220         THE   ELEMENTS  OF   COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

government  is  vitally  interested  in  the  problem  of  trans- 
portation by  water.  In  Congress  we  find  a  River  and 
Harbor  Committee  looking  after  this  end  of  the  business 
of  transportation.  At  every  session  of  Congress  large 
sums  of  money  are  voted  for  the  purpose  of  widening  and 
deepening  the  rivers  of  the  country.  Lighthouses  and 
other  devices  are  maintained  to  render  the  coast  and  har- 
bors and  rivers  as  safe  as  possible  for  navigation. 

Government  Ownership.  —  The  question  of  govern- 
ment ownership  of  the  common  carriers  has  been  raised 
again  and  again.  It  has  been  argued  that  the  railroad, 
telephone,  and  telegraph  have  become  so  vitally  necessary 
to  the  welfare  of  the  nation  that  they  should  not  only  be 
under  the  control  of  but  actually  owned  and  operated  by 
the  federal  government.  As  a  war  measure  the  govern- 
ment took  over  the  complete  control  of  all  these  forms 
of  transportation.  This  was  necessary  because  of  the 
movement  of  large  numbers  of  troops  and  great  amounts 
of  supplies.  Troop  trains  were  given  first  place  on  the 
railroads.  This  could  of  course  have  been  done  only  by 
having  all  the  roads  under  the  immediate  operating  con- 
trol of  the  government.  Whether  or  not  the  country 
shall  have  government  ownership  of  its  common  carriers 
is  a  matter  which  the  people  of  the  country  must  decide 
for  themselves.  We  should  consider  this  matter  carefully, 
for  it  will  soon  be  before  us  for  solution. 

The  Future.  —  The  tremendous  strides  made  in  the 
building  of  air  craft  during  the  war  have  opened  up  a  new 
field  for  thought  along  the  line  of  transportation.     That 


TRANSPORTATION  2  21 

which  was  at  one  time  thought  to  be  the  wildest  of  dreams, 
that  man  should  fly  through  the  air,  has  become  a  fact. 
The  Atlantic  Ocean  has  been  crossed  both  by  aeroplane 
and  dirigible.  Transcontinental  flights  have  been  made. 
Passengers  and  freight  have  been  carried.  What  the 
future  is  no  one  can  say.  It  is  likely,  however,  that  air 
transportation  has  come  to  stay  and  that  some  of  the 
surprises  which  are  ahead  of  us  during  the  next  few  years 
are  to  be  along  the  lines  of  man's  accomplishment  in  this 
field. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
WEALTH 

What  busy  places  our  communities  are !  As  we  look 
out  over  the  city  it  seems  to  be  a  veritable  beehive  of 
industry.  The  smoke  and  steam  from  the  stacks  and  pipes 
of  mill  and  factory  tell  us  that  the  wheels  are  swiftly 
turning,  playing  their  part  in  the  manufacture  of  the 
things  which  the  community  needs.  Thousands  of  men 
and  women  are  busily  at  work  over  loom  and  lathe  skil- 
fully directing  the  production.  The  great  business  houses, 
office  buildings,  and  stores  are  filled  with  workers  and 
buyers  who  are  also  helping  to  keep  the  wheels  of  industry 
turning.  Throngs  of  people  crowd  the  busy  streets. 
Automobiles,  wagons,  trucks,  trolley  cars,  in  endless  pro- 
cession tell  of  the  trade  of  the  city.  Far  across  the  coun- 
try stretch  the  steel  ribbons  on  which  the  freight  and 
passenger  trains  ply  their  way,  while  on  lake  and  river 
and  ocean  steamers  come  and  go. 

Out  in  the  country  the  farmer  plows  and  plants  and 
reaps.  From  sunrise  to  sunset  we  see  him  at  his  tasks. 
Deep  in  the  earth  the  miner  plies  his  pick.  On  the  prairie 
the  ranger  herds  his  cattle.     It  is  a  nation  at  work. 

But  why  are  all  these  millions  of  people  working?  In 
order  that  they  may  live.  Each  one  has  his  own  little 
task  and  for  performing  it  receives  his  wage.     It  is  the 

222 


WEALTH  223 

money  which  each  one  earns  which  is  going  to  determine 
in  part  what  of  the  good  things  of  life  he  is  going  to 
enjoy.  We  desire  food,  clothing,  shelter,  and  many  other 
things.  By  ourselves  we  could  secure  very  little  even  of 
the  bare  necessities  of  life.  By  working  together,  how- 
ever, each  in  return  for  the  special  service  which  each  ren- 
ders receives  the  results  of  the  labor  of  the  many.  Here 
is  a  man  working  at  the  shoe  trade.  His  one  duty  is  to 
operate  a  machine  which  attaches  the  heels.  This  is 
the  only  thing  which  he  does  from  morning  till  night. 
In  return  for  his  service  he  receives  a  wage  in  the  form  of 
money.  With  this  money  he  pays  for  the  rental  of  his 
home,  purchases  clothing  and  food  for  himself  and  his 
family,  and  meets  the  many  needs  which  are  constantly 
arising.  It  is  as  if  the  rest  of  the  world  were  repaying 
him  for  the  work  which  he  has  performed.  He  has  been 
working  not  merely  to  help  make  shoes,  but  to  secure 
the  many  things  which  he  desires  and  needs. 

The  Meaning  of  Wealth.  —  The  word  wealth  is  used 
to  mean  all  things  for  which  man  is  willing  to  work.  We 
have  been  accustomed  most  likely  to  think  of  wealth  as 
money.  Money  is  but  a  part  of  the  world's  wealth.  If 
there  were  no  stores  where  we  could  buy  things,  and  no 
one  around  who  possessed  the  food  and  other  things  which 
we  need,  money  would  be  of  no  use  to  us  no  matter  how 
much  of  it  we  might  happen  to  have.  Money  is  only 
of  value  in  that  it  is  a  convenient  medium  or  means  of 
exchange.  Men  would  not  work  for  money  were  it  not 
for  the  fact  that  with  the  money  they  can  buy  the  things 


224         THE   ELEMENTS  OF  COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

which  they  desire.  So  you  see  that  wealth  refers  to  many, 
many  things.  The  clothes  which  we  are  wearing,  the 
desk  at  which  we  are  sitting,  the  house  where  we  live,  the 
automobile  on  the  street,  the  coal  in  our  cellar,  the  food 
in  the  pantry  and  refrigerator,  all  represent  wealth.  They 
are  things  for  which  men  are  willing  to  work.  You  will 
be  able  to  extend  this  list  indefinitely. 

SOURCES   OF  WEALTH 

Natural  Resources.  —  Our  country  ranks  among  the 
richest  nations  of  the  world.  This  is  due  in  part  to  its 
wonderful  natural  resources.  We  have  learned  from  our 
study  of  Geography  of  the  vast  extent  of  territory  which 
is  included  within  the  United  States.  We  have  studied 
about  the  wonderful  fertility  of  its  soil ;  of  the  rich  store- 
houses of  mineral  wealth  which  lie  beneath  its  surface ; 
of  the  thousands  of  herds  of  cattle  which  graze  on  its  hill- 
sides and  on  the  plains ;  of  the  wonderful  forests  of  giant 
trees ;  of  the  apparently  never  ending  supply  of  the  things 
which  are  required  to  produce  the  wealth  of  a  great  nation. 

Labor.  —  Into  this  wonderful  land  came  a  race  of  hardy 
pioneers.  They  felled  the  forests,  opened  up  the  mines, 
cultivated  the  soil.  They  took  from  the  earth  that  which 
it  had  to  give,  and  with  the  toil  of  their  hands  and  the  sweat 
of  their  brows  they  converted  the  raw  products  of  the  land 
into  the  finished  products  for  their  own  use. 

Capital.  —  And  finally  as  the  result  of  their  labor  that 
which  they  had  produced  aided  them  in  the  production  of 
increasing  wealth.     The  accumulations  of  to-day,  both  of 


WEALTH 


225 


material  supplies  and  of  the  inventions  of  man's  mind, 
make  easier  and  more  productive  the  labor  of  to-morrow. 
So  you  see  that  it  is  the  labor  of  man,  expended  on  the 
bountiful  resources  of  nature,  that  makes  possible  the  ac- 
quiring of  that  of  which  to-morrow's  wealth  is  made.  This 
is  what  is  known  as  capital.  Capital  is  represented  by 
the  great  mills  and  factories  all  over  our  land  ;  by  the 
steamships,  railroads,  automobiles,  aeroplanes ;  by  all  the 
manufacturing  machinery  and  tools ;  by  everything  with 
which  it  is  possible  for  us  to  get  still  further  wealth  out 
of  nature. 

SUGGESTIONS   FOR  FURTHER   STUDY  AND   DISCUSSION 

1.  What  are  the  chief  natural  sources  of  your  section  of  the  country  ? 
What  part  do  these  play  in  the  industrial  and  commercial  life  of  your 
community  ? 

2.  To  what  extent  is  your  community  dependent  upon  the  railroads 
and  other  carriers  for  her  supply  of  raw  materials  ?  What  part  do  these 
carriers  play  in  the  disposal  of  the  finished  product  ? 

3.  Compare  the  value  of  the  materials  from  which  a  dress  or  suit 
of  clothes  has  been  made  with  the  value  of  the  finished  article.  What 
has  added  the  increased  value  to  the  article  ? 

4.  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  word  manufacture  ?  Compare  manu- 
facturing processes  of  a  century  ago  with  those  of  to-day. 

5.  What  is  meant  by  the  "  industrial  revolution  "  ?  What  caused 
it  ?    What  were  some  of  its  results  ? 

6.  What  is  meant  by  "  division  of  labor  "  ?  Explain  how  this  is 
done  in  a  manufacturing  plant  which  you  have  visited. 

MIGRATION 

Why  People  Move.  —  It  would  be  interesting  to  make 
a  study  of  the  homes  of  members  of  the  class  as  they 
are  to-day  and  as  they  were  two,  three,  or  even  five  years 


226         THE   ELEMENTS   OF  COMMUNITY   WELFARE 

ago.  We  would  probably  find  that  many  of  us  are  not 
living  to-day  in  the  same  houses  or  even  in  the  same  neigh- 
borhood we  were  a  few  years  ago.  Why  is  it  that  we 
have  changed  our  place  of  residence?  It  is  quite  likely 
that  some  moved  to  the  present  neighborhood  because  of 
changed  conditions  in  the  former  one.  A  mill  or  factory 
may  have  been  built  which  made  the  place  less  desirable 
as  a  place  of  residence.  Or,  the  father  of  the  family  may 
have  changed  his  place  of  employment  and,  either  to  be 
near  it  or  to  be  on  a  car  line  which  runs  directly  to  the 
plant,  the  family  has  moved  to  its  present  home.  Again, 
there  may  be  a  few  who  have  come  to  the  city  from  some 
other  city  or  part  of  the  country.  This  may  have  been 
because  the  father  has  secured  employment  in  the  new 
city.  Such  moving  from  place  to  place  is  called  migrat- 
ing. 

The  Man  on  the  Job.  —  Migration  plays  an  important 
part  in  the  production  of  wealth.  We  have  seen  that 
we  must  not  only  have  the  raw  materials  upon  which  to 
work,  and  the  tools,  but  that  a  most  important  part  is 
the  labor  of  man.  It  is  necessary  that  labor  be  near  at 
hand  if  production  of  wealth  is  to  continue.  Mills  and 
factories  are  located  with  a  view  to  their  nearness  to  the 
source  of  the  raw  materials  which  are  to  be  used  in  manu- 
facture.  This  includes  the  fuel  which  is  necessary  for 
the  operation  of  the  plant.  The  nearness  may  not  be 
that  of  distance,  but  that  of  convenience  of  transportation. 
Men  are  in  need  of  work,  and  so  they  go  to  the  places 
where  work  is  to  be  found.     It  is  necessary  that  they  mi- 


WEALTH  227 

grate  or  move  into  such  districts.  It  is  the  opportunity 
for  employment  which  is  one  of  the  factors  in  determin- 
ing the  growth  of  cities. 

Transportation.  —  All  the  various  forms  of  transporta- 
tion which  have  been  mentioned  in  an  earlier  chapter, 
aid  in  migration.  With  the  coming  of  the  railroads,  came 
the  building  up  of  the  West.  The  railroads  made  it 
possible  for  the  thousands  of  men  who  were  necessary 
for  the  development  of  that  section  of  the  country  to  get 
there.  The  migration  of  one  day  meant  increased  industry 
the  next,  and  this  increased  industry  in  its  turn  demanded 
that  more  men  be  available.  Thus  migration  played  an 
important  part  in  the  development  of  many  sections  of 
the  country. 

Communication.  —  Improved  methods  of  communication 
also  aided  in  the  development  of  the  country  through 
migration.  People,  are  unwilling  to  remove  themselves 
from  contact  with  their  fellows.  It  is  not  easy  to  break 
away  from  the  ties  of  home  and  friends,  and  move  into  a 
new  and  strange  section.  And  especially  is  this  true 
when  such  moving  means  that  we  shall  very  seldom  if 
ever  hear  from  these  people  again.  The  ease,  however, 
with  which  one  may  communicate  with  others,  even  in 
the  most  remote  sections  of  the  country,  has  made  separa- 
tion easier.  One  does  not  seem  so  far  away  when  a  letter, 
or  telegram,  or  even  the  telephone  makes  it  possible  for 
frequent  communication. 

The  Emigrant.  —  In  the  early  days  of  the  development 
of  the  West,  the  people  who  left  their  homes  in  the  East 


2  28         THE  ELEMENTS  OF   COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

and  traveled  out  into  the  what  was  then  a  wilderness  were 
called  emigrants.  It  is  true  that  they  were  migrating, 
and  it  is  also  true  that  they  were  going  into  a  country 
which  was  seemingly  at  the  other  end  of  the  earth,  so  far 
as  connection  with  their  friends  in  the  East  was  concerned. 
To-day  such  a  trip,  even  though  it  be  to  the  extreme  south- 
western or  northwestern  part  of  the  country,  is  looked 
upon  almost  as  a  short  vacation.  Distance  has  almost 
been  eliminated  by  the  steam  railway  and  the  telegraph 
and  telephone,  not  to  speak  of  the  aeroplane. 

Early  Immigration.  —  It  may  be  that  some  of  us  have 
come  to  the  United  States  from  a  foreign  land.  If  we 
have  not  ourselves,  then  our  parents  or  our  grandparents, 
or  some  of  our  ancestors,  some  time  or  other  were  immi- 
grants. The  new  world  offered  such  wonderful  promise  of 
riches  and  liberty  that  it  attracted  as  we  know  the  multi- 
tudes of  people  whose  descendants  to-day  represent  the 
backbone  of  the  American  nation.  In  the  early  colonial 
days  they  represented  the  English  nation.  Speaking  the 
same  language  and  having  the  same  manners  and  customs 
as  those  of  the  land  to  which  they  came,  we  can  scarcely 
speak  of  them  as  immigrants,  as  the  word  is  used  to-day. 
About  the  middle  of  the  last  century,  immigrants  began  to 
flock  to  America  from  the  western  and  northern  countries 
of  Europe,  from  Ireland,  Germany,  Norway,  Sweden,  Den- 
mark, and  other  countries.  Coming  to  the  new  world  with 
the  intention  of  making  it  their  permanent  home,  these 
people  rather  quickly,  for  the  most  part,  fitted  in  to  the  life 
of  the  new  community. 


WEALTH  229 

Recent  Immigration.  —  Of  later  years  the  tide  of  immi- 
gration has  come  principally  from  southern  and  eastern 
Europe.  Many  of  these  people  possess  very  worthy  traits 
of  character,  and  when  they  come  with  the  intention  of 
making  America  their  permanent  home,  they  soon  become 
useful,  law-abiding  citizens.  An  immigrant  of  this  type 
tries  as  quickly  as  possible  to  learn  the  language  of  his 
new  land.  He  adopts  the  manners  and  customs  of  the 
people  as  best  he  can.  He  takes  advantage  of  the  op- 
portunities which  are  afforded  him  to  get  an  education. 
His  children  are  sent  to  the  schools.  And  soon  he  be- 
comes through  the  process  of  naturalization  an  American 
citizen. 

Undesirable  Immigrants.  —  Unfortunately  many  of  the 
later  immigrants  have  come  to  America  with  the  idea 
of  making  a  lot  of  money,  and  then  returning  to  their 
own  country.  These  people  do  not  make  desirable  citi- 
zens. They  come  to  the  country  merely  for  what  they 
can  get  out  of  it.  They  are  not  and  do  not  intend  to  be- 
come citizens.  Not  being  in  sympathy  with  our  demo- 
cratic form  of  government,  they  often  become  a  source 
of  trouble,  stirring  up  their  fellows  to  acts  against  the 
community  and  the  government.  Such  undesirable  citi- 
zens should  not  be  allowed  to  remain  in  the  country,  but 
should  be  required  to  return  at  once  to  their  native  lands. 
America  has  ever  stood  as  a  refuge  for  the  oppressed  of 
every  nation,  and  when  a  man  comes  to  our  shores  in  search 
of  refuge  he  shall  find  it.  But  trouble  makers  are  not 
wanted  and  should  not  be  tolerated. 


230         THE   ELEMENTS  OF  COMMUNITY   WELFARE 

Farm  Life  and  the  Immigrant.  —  Another  great  diffi- 
culty is  that  so  many  of  the  immigrants  remain  in  the 
large  coast  cities  where  they  are  brought  by  the  steam- 
ships. These  people  fill  the  poorest  sections  of  our  cities, 
often  locating  on  or  near  the  river  front.  The  living  con- 
ditions are  usually  wretched,  and  frequently  are  such  as 
to  make  for  the  development  of  crime.  How  much  better  it 
would  be  if  these  newcomers  to  our  land  could  be  induced 
to  go  to  the  great  farm  lands.  Here  labor  is  in  demand, 
living  conditions  are  more  healthful,  and  the  opportu- 
nities of  becoming  decent,  self-respecting  citizens  far 
greater.  It  was  under  such  conditions  that  the  sturdy 
forefathers  of  our  nation  were  reared,  and  it  would  mean 
much  to  the  future  of  our  nation  if  these  new  Americans 
could  live  and  work  on  the  farms. 

Future  Citizens.  —  The  most  hopeful  part  of  the  im- 
migration problem  is  to  be  seen  in  the  boys  and  girls  in 
the  families  of  the  immigrants.  Educated  in  our  schools, 
learning  our  language,  playing  and  working  side  by  side 
with  American  boys  and  girls,  they  quickly  become  Ameri- 
cans. The  fathers  and  mothers  may  still  lean  in  their 
affections  to  the  land  of  their  birth,  but  their  sons  and 
daughters  are  true  American  patriots.  These  boys  and 
girls  will  be  the  substantial  citizens  of  the  country  in  the 
future,  and  those  of  us  who  know  them  best  have  no  fear 
as  to  what  that  future  will  mean  for  America. 

Naturalization.  —  The  process  by  which  a  foreigner 
may   become   an   American    citizen   is   called    naturaliza- 


WEALTH  231 

tion.  The  law  provides  that  if  a  foreigner  is  over  eighteen 
years  of  age,  he  may  appear  before  a  state  or  federal  court 
and  declare  his  intention  of  renouncing  his  allegiance  to 
the  government  of  the  land  of  his  birth,  and  of  becoming 
a  citizen  of  the  United  States.  Two  years  after  declar- 
ing his  intentions  he  may  return  to  the  same  court,  pro- 
vided he  has  resided  in  the  United  States  by  this  time  for 
a  period  of  not  less  than  five  years,  and,  renouncing  his 
allegiance  to  the  foreign  power  and  taking  the  oath  of 
allegiance  to  the  United  States,  he  then  becomes  a  citizen. 
If  such  a  foreigner  is  married  and  has  children,  his  wife 
and  children  become  citizens  by  virtue  of  his  citizenship. 
The  newly  made  citizen  is  now  eligible  to  hold  any  office 
in  the  United  States  except  that  of  President  or  Vice- 
President. 

Preparing  for  Citizenship.  —  Intelligent  citizenship  be- 
ing necessary,  every  effort  is  taken  to  see  that  the  for- 
eigner is  prepared  for  his  new  citizenship.  There  are  two 
government  bureaus  which  work  hand  in  hand  to  aid  the 
immigrant  in  settling  and  in  his  efforts  to  become  a  citi- 
zen. The  Bureau  of  Immigration  keeps  a  constant  watch 
over  the  foreigners  entering  the  country,  and  endeavors 
to  see  that  they  are  directed  to  such  places  as  will  be  for 
the  best  interests  of  the  immigrant  and  the  country.  The 
Bureau  of  Naturalization  keeps  in  touch  with  the  immi- 
grant and  directs  him  toward  citizenship.  The  public 
school  systems  of  our  cities  work  with  the  Bureau  of  Nat- 
uralization through  their  night  schools  in  preparing  the 
immigrant  for  citizenship. 


232         THE  ELEMENTS  OF   COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY  AND    DISCUSSION 

i.  See  if  you  can  find  in  the  daily  papers  or  in  magazines  the  ad- 
vertisements of  chambers  of  commerce  of  other  cities.  What  facts 
are  they  publishing  about  their  city?  Why  are  they  going  to  all  this 
expense  ? 

2.  What  effect  does  it  have  on  the  wealth  of  a  city  when  a  new 
manufacturing  plant  is  established?  How  is  such  an  establishment 
likely  to  affect  the  population? 

3.  Name  three  of  the  largest  manufacturing  concerns  in  your  city. 
About  how  many  people  do  they  employ  ?  What  would  happen  if  these 
concerns  were  to  remove  to  a  distant  city  ?  What  effect  would  it  have 
on  the  population? 

4.  Why  are  people  who  are  Out  of  employment  likely  to  move  ? 

5.  Explain  how  improved  systems  of  transportation  have  increased 
migration.     Is  this  of  advantage  to  the  country?    Why? 

6.  Find  out  all  you  can  about  the  way  in  which  the  national  gov- 
ernment has  encouraged  migration  to  the  unsettled  lands  of  the  west. 

7.  Under  what  conditions  does  the  government  make  free  grants 
of  land  to  settlers  ? 

8.  What  nationalities  are  represented  by  the  members  of  your 
class  ?  In  how  many  cases  have  the  parents  come  to  America  as  immi- 
grants?    the  grandparents?     From  what  countries? 

9.  Find  in  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States  the  definition  of 
the  word  citizen.     What  is  the  meaning  of  the  word  naturalized? 

10.  What  restrictions  does  the  national  government  throw  around 
immigration?  What  classes  of  people  are  excluded  from  the  United 
States?     Why? 

11.  Find  out  all  you  can  about  the  handling  of  the  immigrant  at 
the  ports  of  entry  to  the  United  States. 

12.  Describe  the  process  by  which  a  foreigner  becomes  a  citizen 
of  our  country. 

13.  What  is  your  community  doing  to  help  the  immigrant  become 
a  good  citizen? 

14.  Why  should  the  immigrant  learn  to  speak  the  English  lan- 
guage ? 


WEALTH  233 

VOLUNTARY   ORGANIZATIONS   CONCERNED  IN   INDUSTRY 

This  is  the  day  of  big  business.  In  the  place  of  the 
small  shop  has  come  the  great  factory.  Where  formerly 
a  few  were  employed  to-day  thousands  earn  their  living. 
This  has  come  about  as  a  result  of  the  improved  processes 
of  manufacture,  the  invention  of  labor-saving  machinery, 
and  the  division  of  labor.  At  one  time  each  worker  was 
responsible  for  the  manufacture  of  the  entire  article  which 
was  being  produced.  The  shoemaker  cut  the  leather 
from  the  hide,  sewed,  hammered,  and  glued,  and  after 
several  hours  of  labor  turned  out  a  finished  pair  of  shoes. 
To-day  in  a  large  shoe  factory  we  would  find  thousands 
of  people  at  work,  each  one  performing  some  very  small, 
but  highly  specialized,  bit  of  work.  The  result  is  the  same 
finished  pair  of  shoes  but  multiplied  many  times.  It  has 
been  found  that  if  one  person  does  one  part  of  the  work, 
another  another  part,  and  so  on,  the  work  will  be  done 
much  more  rapidly  than  if  each  one  did  all  the  work.  This 
is  what  is  known  as  division  of  labor. 

Where  wealth  is  being  made  at  such  rapid  pace,  many 
things  become  necessary.  The  city  where  the  produc- 
tion is  going  on  must  be  kept  closely  in  touch  with  the 
markets  where  the  raw  materials  needed  in  the  produc- 
tion are  for  sale.  If  possible  these  markets  should  be 
near,  and  the  nearer  to  the  city  the  better.  The  manufac- 
turer who  is  going  to  purchase  the  raw  materials  to  be  used 
in  manufacturing  the  finished  product  must  know  what  the 
market  value  of  these  materials  is  in  other  parts  of  the 
country.     If  necessary,  he  should  be  in  a  position  to  pur- 


234         THE  ELEMENTS  OF   COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

chase  by  telegraphic  order  what  he  needs  and  have  it 
shipped  to  his  factory.  He  must  have  an  adequate  supply 
of  labor  for  the  running  of  his  plant.  Then  when  the 
finished  article  is  produced  he  must  find  a  market  where 
it  can  be  sold.  Some  of  it  will  of  course  be  used  in  his 
own  city,  but  most  of  it  will  have  to  be  marketed  in  other 
parts  of  the  country,  or  even  sent  to  foreign  countries.  He 
must  know  what  the  demand  is  for  the  article  which 
he  is  manufacturing,  and  the  market  value  of  the  goods. 
He  must  be  able  to  advertise  his  product  and  bring  it 
to  the  attention  of  the  public  in  order  that  a  demand  may 
be  created  for  it.  All  this  would  require  a  larger  traveling, 
advertising,  and  selling  force  than  the  average  manufac- 
turer could  alone  afford. 

The  prosperity  of  the  community  is,  however,  tied  up 
in  the  prosperity  of  the  manufacturer.  If  the  demand 
for  his  products  should  fall  off,  he  would  be  under  the 
necessity  of  reducing  his  factory  force.  These  people, 
being  thrown  out  of  work,  would  be  required  to  find  work 
elsewhere.  This  might  mean  that  they  would  have  to 
leave  the  community  and  move  to  some  other.  When 
this  happens  the  tradespeople  of  the  community  suffer 
because  of  the  falling  off  of  their  trade.  Such  a  condi- 
tion might  even  result  in  the  closing  of  the  manufacturing 
plant  and  great  distress  being  caused  to  the  entire  commu- 
nity. To  protect  against  all  these  things,  we  find  that 
all  sorts  of  associations  of  employers  and  employees  have 
sprung   up. 

Boards  of  Trade.  —  Playing  a  very  important  part  in 
the  development  and   prosperity  of  the  community,  we 


236         THE   ELEMENTS  OF  COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

find  the  Boards  of  Trade,  and  Chambers  of  Commerce. 
You  may  have  seen  at  some  time  advertisements  in  the 
papers  calling  attention  to  the  splendid  opportunities 
which  a  certain  city  offers  for  the  establishment  of 
certain  lines  of  business.  Or  it  may  have  been  an  at- 
tempt to  attract  the  working  people  to  a  certain  city,  by 
telling  of  the  opportunities  for  employment  and  also  the 
attractiveness  of  the  locality  as  a  place  for  homes.  These 
advertisements  are  usually  placed  by  Boards  of  Trade, 
or  Chambers  of  Commerce,  representing  the  city  in  ques- 
tion. We  shall  find  among  the  members  of  such  organ- 
izations the  most  progressive  business  men  of  the  com- 
munity. They  are  men  who  are  not  only  interested  in 
the  welfare  of  their  own  business,  but  in  the  advancement 
of  the  city.  They  realize  that  the  interest  of  each  mem- 
ber of  the  community  is  tied  up  in  the  interests  of  all, 
and  that  anything  which  betters  conditions  for  others 
will  in  turn  help  them. 

Business  Associations.  —  Then,  too,  we  find  associa- 
tions among  the  people  who  are  interested  in  some  one 
line  of  industry.  For  example,  there  will  be  a  Retail 
Dry  Goods  Dealers  Association,  or  Association  of  Ad- 
vertisers, and  so  on.  These  represent  much  smaller 
groups  than  the  Chamber  of  Commerce,  or  Board  of  Trade. 
Their  interests  are  the  same  as  those  of  the  larger  organi- 
zations, but  more  particularly  concern  definite  trades  or 
businesses.  They  will  often  be  represented  on  the  larger 
body.  By  working  together  these  men  do  much  to  pro- 
mote  the   interests  of   the   particular  trade  in  the  com- 


WEALTH  237 

munity.  They  are  of  course  still  competitors  for  busi- 
ness, but  instead  of  being  enemies  and  working  one  against 
the  other,  they  are  good  friends.  As  a  result  of  their 
combined  efforts,  they  are  able  to  build  up  the  trade  of  all. 
For  example,  they  will  start  a  campaign  of  advertising 
to  educate  the  public  as  to  the  value  of  a  certain  article. 
This  may  be  done  in  such  a  way  as  to  attract  wide-spread 
attention,  and  send  the  people  to  the  stores  to  purchase 
the  article  so  advertised.  In  this  way  business  is  in- 
creased for  all,  by  a  kind  of  advertising  which  would  prob- 
ably have  been  so  expensive  as  to  have  been  impossible 
for  any  one  dealer. 

Professional  Associations.  —  There  are  also  the  as- 
sociations of  the  professional  people  of  the  city,  such  as 
the  physicians  and  teachers.  Here  the  object  is  not  to 
build  up  trade,  but  to  improve  conditions  in  the  com- 
munity along  the  lines  in  which  these  people  are  inter- 
ested. By  their  combined  efforts  they  are  often  able  to 
accomplish  much  that  is  of  lasting  benefit  to  the  com- 
munity. 

Labor  Unions.  —  We  have  seen  that  there  are  three 
things  necessary  in  the  production  of  wealth  :  land,  or 
the  natural  resources  of  the  country ;  labor,  or  the  people 
whose  work  upon  the  raw  materials  results  in  the  finished 
product ;  and  capital,  or  wealth,  which  is  used  for  the 
further  production  of  wealth.  All  those  who  are  engaged 
in  the  production  of  wealth,  whether  as  employers  or 
employees,  owners  or  workers  at  the  bench,  come  under 
this  heading  of  labor.     Usually,  however,  when  we  use 


238         THE   ELEMENTS  OF  COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

the  word  labor,  we  think  of  the  people  who  are  engaged 
in  the  capacity  of  employees.  The  individual  employee, 
in  mill,  or  factory,  by  himself  could  exert  very  little  in- 
fluence over  his  employers  in  regard  to  such  matters  as 
wages,  hours  of  labor,  and  so  forth.  When,  however,  he 
has  with  him  the  forces  of  all  the  other  employees  he  can 
do  much  to  influence  conditions.  Such  organization  of 
the  workers  is  called  a  labor  union. 

At  first  labor  unions  exerted  very  little  power,  as  they 
consisted  of  separate  organizations  of  the  workers  in  a 
certain  industry  in  the  immediate  community.  Within 
recent  years,  however,  they  have  been  more  closely  or- 
ganized, until  to-day  we  find  in  the  United  States  a  very 
powerful  organization  representing  all  the  various  trades 
and  known  as  the  American  Federation  of  Labor. 

The  "main  objects  of  a  labor  union  are  to  secure  better 
wages,  shorter  hours  of  labor,  and  improved  working 
conditions.  Much  has  been  accomplished  along  these 
lines  in  recent  years.  The  length  of  the  working  day  has 
been  shortened  until  it  is  now  eight  hours  instead  of  the 
former  day  of  ten  and  even  twelve  hours.  Wages  have 
been  increased  all  over  the  country.  The  sanitary  condi- 
tions of  places  of  employment  have  been  greatly  improved. 
Part  of  this  betterment  of  working  conditions  has  been 
secured  by  influencing  legislation,  part  by  the  direct  pres- 
sure which  the  union  has  brought  to  bear  on  the  employer. 

When  the  decision  is  reached  that  a  certain  rate  of  pay 
is  to  be  secured,  the  union  takes  the  matter  up  with  the 
employers  by  means  of  a  committee.  Often  this  "  col- 
lective bargaining,  "  as  it  is  called,  is  accomplished  with- 


WEALTH  239 

out  difficulty.  When  terms  which  are  satisfactory  to  both 
sides  have  been  agreed  upon  the  agreement  is  usually  made 
binding  for  a  certain  period.  If  the  result  cannot  be  se- 
cured in  this  way  then  the  union  may  resort  to  a  strike. 
This  merely  means  the  refusal  of  members  of  the  union 
to  work  for  certain  employers  until  their  demands  have 
been  granted  or  a. compromise  has  been  reached.  Another 
method  of  securing  what  they  want  is  by  means  of  a  boy- 
cott. This  is  the  inducing  of  all  who  sympathize  with 
the  workers  in  their  demands  to  refrain  from  using  the 
products  of  the  plant  or  the  services  of  the  company  until 
the  demands  have  been  granted.  Both  employer  and 
employee  have  found  that  much  time,  and  money  may 
be  saved  by  compromising. 

At  times  strikes  have  resulted  in  the  destruction  of  life 
and  property.  The  leaders  of  the  union  are  as  a  rule  much 
opposed  to  the  use  of  violence.  They  have  learned  that 
nothing  is  to  be  gained  and  that  often  their  cause  is  in- 
jured when  such  things  happen.  Very  often  the  disorder 
which  occurs  in  a  strike  is  due  to  the  sympathizers  who 
do  not  realize  that  what  they  are  doing  is  injuring  instead 
of  helping  the  cause. 

The  best  interest  of  the  community  may  be  gained 
when  anything  which  is  injurious  to  the  welfare  of  the 
social  group  is  not  permitted  to  exist.  Often  because 
the  unions  and  the  employers  have  been  unable  to  come 
to  an  understanding  the  entire  community  has  been  made 
to  suffer.  This  is  a  condition  which  should  not  be  per- 
mitted in  a  democratic  nation.  The  remedy  for  this 
evil  is  to  be  found  in  compulsory  arbitration.     There  are 


240         THE  ELEMENTS  OF  COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

two  ways  of  carrying  out  the  findings  of  an  arbitration 
board.  They  may  be  enforced  by  the  government,  or 
they  may  be  published  so  that  public  opinion  will  sup- 
port the  side  which  is  in  the  right. 

SUGGESTIONS   FOR  FURTHER  STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION 

i.  Secure  some  samples  of  the  literature  issued  by  your  local  Board 
of  Trade  and  Chamber  of  Commerce.  Note  the  various  lines  of  business 
and  so  forth  in  which  these  organizations  are  interested.  What  ad- 
vantage is  it  to  the  city  to  have  such  organizations  ?  What  advantage 
is  it  to  the  business  man  to  belong  to  such  organizations? 

2.  Find  out  all  you  can  about  your  local  business  men's  association. 
What  kind  of  work  are  they  doing  ?  Of  what  especial  value  is  such  an 
association  to  the  community? 

3.  Make  a  list  of  the  labor  unions  to  which  the  parents  of  members 
of  your  class  belong.  What  have  these  unions  accomplished  in  the 
past  ten  years? 

4.  Make  a  list  of  the  arguments  in  favor  of  arbitration  of  labor  dis- 
putes. 

5.  Make  a  list  of  the  arguments  for  and  against  compulsory  arbi- 
tration. 


CHAPTER     XV 
WEALTH  (Continued) 
SPENDING  AND   SAVING 

The  war  has  taught  the  American  people  a  great  lesson 
in  thrift.  There  is  not  a  village  in  the  country  to-day 
where  people  may  not  be  found  who  are  the  proud  pos- 
sessors of  Liberty  Bonds.  Many  of  our  boys  and  girls 
not  only  proved  that  they  were  excellent  bond  salesmen 
by  putting  the  Liberty  Loans  over  the  top,  but  also  that 
they  were  good  financiers  because  they  were  able  to  buy 
out  of  their  savings  Liberty  Bonds  for  themselves.  Then, 
too,  the  Thrift  stamp  and  the  War  Saving  stamp,  baby 
bonds  as  they  are  sometimes  called,  gave  even  the  youngest 
the  opportunity  to  save  his  pennies  to  help  win  the  war, 
and  at  the  same  time  lay  what  may  be  the  foundation  of 
a  fortune  in  later  years.  We  all  remember  the  great  cam- 
paign which  was  waged  to  teach  us  to  save  food  so  that 
our  Armies  and  their  Allies  might  have  enough  to  eat. 
All  over  our  country  we  saved  so  that  the  war  might  be 
brought  to  a  successful  conclusion. 

And  we  have  seen  the  results  of  our  efforts.  Thanks 
to  the  money  which  was  loaned  to  the  government  in  re- 
turn for  Liberty  Bonds  and  Thrift  stamps,  and  to  the 
food  which  was  saved,  the  great  war  was  brought  to  a 
successful  conclusion.     With  the  money  the  government 

241 


242  THE  ELEMENTS  OF   COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

was  able  to  unlock  the  storehouses  of  untold  wealth  with 
which  our  soldiers  were  trained,  equipped,  and  carried 
across  the  seas.  Never  has  the  reward  for  thriftiness  been 
so  quickly  achieved  as  during  the  past  few  years. 

We  have  seen  that  one  of  the  necessary  things  in  the 
production  of  wealth  is  the  capital  resulting  from  former 
labor,  which  may  be  used  in  the  production  of  new  wealth. 
The  greater  accumulation  of  wealth  that  we  have  the  more 
wealth  we  shall  be  able  to  produce.  There  are  many 
ways  in  which  we  may  engage  in  the  production  of  wealth. 
The  manufacturer  takes  the  savings  which  he  has  ac- 
cumulated through  the  years  and  invests  them  in  build- 
ing and  machinery  and  fuel  and  wages.  His  money  is 
for  the  time  lost  as  it  were.  Really  it  has  been  converted 
into  those  things  which  we  have  just  mentioned.  But 
as  the  wheels  of  his  plant  turn  and  the  results  of  the  labor 
of  his  employees  begin  to  show,  his  money  comes  back  to 
him  as  the  result  of  the  sale  of  the  articles  which  he  has 
manufactured.  If  he  desires  to  further  extend  his  capac- 
ity for  the  production  he  may  reinvest  his  money  in  more 
machines  and  in  enlarging  his  plant.  The  limit  to  which 
he  may  go  is  determined  only  by  his  sound  business  judg- 
ment, his  own  willingness  to  continue  investing,  and  by  the 
demand  of  the  public  for  the  things  which  he  is  producing. 

Another  man,  either  because  he  has  not  accumulated 
money  or  because  he  is  unwilling  to  venture  his  saving  in  an 
investment,  may  be  engaged  in  the  production  of  wealth  by 
operating  a  machine  in  a  factory  or  doing  any  other  useful 
occupation.  In  return  for  this  he  receives  his  pay  and  with 
the  money  purchases  such  things  as  he  desires,  or  saves  it. 


WEALTH  243 

Banking.  —  Saving  money  is  not  necessarily  produc- 
ing wealth.  In  fact  it  may  be  just  the  reverse.  The  man 
who  takes  his  money  and  hides  it  away  while  he  is 
saving  is  really  interfering  with  the  production  of  wealth. 
Money  itself  is  the  means  of  exchange  of  wealth.  If  it 
is  hidden  away,  it  is  not  working  as  such  a  medium  of  ex- 
change. If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  money  is  placed  in  a 
bank,  it  is  being  put  to  useful  work.  This  is  proved  by 
the  fact  that  the  banks  are  willing  to  pay  us  interest  for 
the  use  of  our  money.  They  could  not  do  this  if  they 
were  to  take  the  money  and  place  it  in  a  great  vault  or 
safe,  for  there  it  would  do  no  work.  What  the  bank  really 
does  with  the  money  we  deposit  is  to  make  it  work.  For 
example,  we  deposit  a  certain  number  of  dollars  in  a  bank. 
The  bank  gives  us  credit  for  the  deposit  in  our  bank  book, 
and  will  pay  the  money  back  to  us  with  interest  when  we 
care  to  withdraw  it.  A  business  man  who  is  going  to 
extend  his  business  so  that  he  may  make  more  wealth 
comes  to  the  bank  and  borrows  money  from  them.  Let 
us  suppose  that  our  money  is  among  that  which  the  bank 
lends  to  him.  With  this  money  he  enlarges  his  plant 
and  increases  the  amount  of  production.  For  the  use 
of  the  money  he  is  willing  to  pay  the  bank  a  certain  inter- 
est. So  you  see  that  the  money  which  we  have  deposited 
is  not  lying  idle,  but  is  at  work  helping  to  produce  more 
wealth.  The  difference  in  the  amount  of  interest  which 
the  business  man  pays  the  bank  and  that  which  the  bank 
pays  us,  pays  for  the  running  of  the  bank  and  a  percentage 
of  interest  on  the  money  invested  by  the  stockholders  who 
own  the  bank. 


244         THE  ELEMENTS  OF   COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

Savings  Banks.  —  Savings  banks  are  to  be  found  even 
in  small  towns.  It  is  a  splendid  thing  for  boys  and  girls 
to  develop  the  banking  habit  at  an  early  age.  Many  a 
bank  account  started  with  the  few  pennies  earned  by 
doing  errands  has  been  the  beginning  of  a  successful  and 
prosperous  life.  The  boy  or  girl  who  saves  money  wisely 
is  not  only  paving  the  way  for  a  successful  after  life  but 
is  also  rendering  a  real  service  to  the  community.  With 
an  account  in  a  savings  fund  you  can  feel  indeed  that  you 
are  helping  to  run  at  least  some  small  part  of  the  busi- 
ness interests  of  your  community. 

National  Banks.  —  In  almost  every  community  of  fair 
size,  we  find  banks  which  use  the  word  national  as  a  part 
of  their  name.  This  does  not  mean  that  these  banks  are 
operated  by  the  national  government,  but  that  the  bank 
has  been  organized  under  the  direction  of  the  govern- 
ment. Such  banks  are  inspected  by  agents  of  the  na- 
tional government.  In  addition  to  this  they  hold  bonds 
upon  which  they  have  the  privilege  of  issuing  national 
bank  notes  up  to  a  certain  amount.  That  is,  the  bank 
invests  a  certain  amount  of  money  in  national  bonds  and 
in  return  is  allowed  to  issue  bank  notes,  which  the  gov- 
ernment prints  for  it.  Such  bank  notes  are  quite  com- 
mon in  circulation. 

Trust  Companies.  —  There  are  many  private  banks 
operating  under  the  name  of  trust  companies.  These 
banks  make  a  special  business .  of  investing  the  money 
or  looking  after  the  property  of  the  people. 


WEALTH  245 

The  Clearing  House.  —  Much  of  the  financial  busi- 
ness of  the  community  is  transacted  by  means  of  checks. 
People  who  have  accounts  in  national  banks  and  trust 
companies  usually  make  use  of  checks  in  paying  their 
bills  and  in  other  financial  transactions.  One  person 
who  owes  money  to  another  will  pay  the  debt  by  giving  a 
check  on  the  bank  in  which  his  money  is  deposited.  In- 
stead of  going  to  that  bank  and  cashing  the  check,  the 
one  who  receives  it  usually  deposits  it  to  his  own  credit 
in  his  bank.  As  this  is  being  done  by  many  thousands 
of  persons  during  the  day,  you  will  see  that  by  the  end  of 
the  day  each  bank  will  have  checks  calling  for  money 
on  many  other  banks.  In  their  turn  these  banks  may 
have  checks  calling  for  money  on  other  banks.  In  order 
to  make  easy  the  collection  of  all  this  money  we  find  an 
organization  known  as  the  clearing  house.  Here  every 
day  the  checks  and  drafts  from  every  bank  in  the  city  are 
sent.  They  are  sorted  out  and  turned  over  to  the  banks 
to  which  they  belong.  The  balance  against  the  several 
banks  is  then  easily  straightened  out. 

Building  Associations.  —  A  very  important  part  of 
the  saving  life  of  a  community  is  played  by  the  building 
and  loan  associations.  These  are  organized  chiefly  for 
the  purpose  of  enabling  people  of  small  or  moderate 
means  to  own  their  own  homes.  As  a  matter  of  fact  they 
have  started  many  a  person  on  the  way  to  considerable 
wealth.  These  associations  are  different  from  a  bank 
in  that  every  depositor  is  a  stockholder.  The  stock  is 
sold  usually  at  two  hundred  dollars  a  share.     This  is  paid 


246         THE  ELEMENTS  OF  COMMUNITY   WELFARE 

for  at  the  rate  of  one  dollar  a  month  for  each  share  of 
stock.  As  the  money  which  is  paid  in  is  put  immediately 
to  use,  being  borrowed  by  people  for  the  purpose  of  pur- 
chasing property,  it  earns  money  from  the  time  it  is  de- 
posited. This  interest  accumulates  so  rapidly  that  by 
the  time  about  one  hundred  thirty  payments  are  made, 
it  is  worth  the  full  two  hundred  dollars.  The  stock  is 
then  said  to  mature  and  the  full  value  is  returned  to  the 
stockholder.  This  means  that  the  rate  of  interest  earned 
has  been  about  eight  per  cent.  This  high  rate  is  due  to 
the  fact  that  such  associations  are  conducted  with  very 
little  expense.  There  are  no  highly  paid  officers  nor  ex- 
pensive buildings  to  be  maintained. 

If  a  stockholder  desires  to  purchase  a  property,  the 
association  will  lend  him  the  money  for  this  purpose.  For 
each  share  of  stock  which  he  is  purchasing  he  may  borrow 
up  to  two  hundred  dollars.  That  is,  if  he  wishes  to  bor- 
row one  thousand  dollars  he  must  subscribe  for  five  shares 
of  stock.  The  money  is  loaned  on  a  mortgage  of  the  prop- 
erty he  is  purchasing  up  to  an  amount  of  its  value  which 
is  determined  by  the  directors  of  the  association.  The 
stockholder  pays  each  month  one  dollar  on  each  hundred 
dollars  which  he  has  borrowed,  which  pays  the  interest 
on  the  borrowed  money  and  also  pays  the  installment 
due  on  the  shares  he  is  purchasing.  If  he  were  to  borrow 
$1000,  it  would  therefore  cost  him  $10  a  month.  In  about 
eleven  years  the  maturing  stock  has  become  equal  in  value 
to  the  money  borrowed  and  cancels  the  loan.  This  has 
enabled  many  families  with  but  small  incomes  to  own 
their  own  homes. 


WEALTH  247 

Insurance.  —  When  the  one  who  has  been  the  support 
of  a  family  dies,  the  community  faces  a  serious  problem. 
Not  only  has  one  of  the  producers  of  wealth  been  lost, 
but  there  is  a  likelihood  that  the  dependents  may  become  a 
burden  on  the  community.  Of  course  there  may  be  an- 
other member  of  the  family  who  can  go  out  to  work,  but  if 
this  is  the  mother,  it  means  that  the  children  are  more  or 
less  neglected  ;  while  if  it  is  one  of  the  children,  it  means 
that  valuable  educational  opportunities  are  going  to  be 
lost.  Either  is  a  serious  economic  loss  to  the  community. 
To  provide  against  this  in  civilized  communities  we  find 
some  form  of  life  insurance.  The  average  age  to  which 
the  members  of  a  community  will  live  is  well  known. 
Based  upon  tables  which  have  been  carefully  worked  out, 
it  has  been  found  that  if  a  large  number  of  people  are  will- 
ing to  pay  into  a  fund  a  certain  sum  of  money  over  a  num- 
ber of  years  it  will  be  possible  to  pay  to  the  family  of  those 
who  die  certain  sums  of  money.  The  amount  of  this 
money  is  dependent  upon  the  size  of  the  sum  paid  in  reg- 
ularly during  the  lifetime  of  the  subscriber.  Sometimes  this 
money  is  paid  in  a  lump  sum,  or  it  may  be  so  arranged 
that  it  will  be  paid  to  the  dependent,  who  is  called  a  bene- 
ficiary, in  smaller  sums  at  stated  intervals.  There  are 
many  forms  of  life  insurance,  such  as  the  straight  life, 
the  endowment,  and  so  on. 

In  our  study  of  the  topic  "  Protection  of  Life  and  Prop- 
erty," we  saw  how  great  the  loss  through  accident  and  fire 
was  in  our  country  each  year.  When  a  person  has  been 
seriously  injured  or  when  property  has  been  destroyed 
by  fire,  there  is  a  loss  to  society  which  is  greater  even 


248         THE  ELEMENTS  OF  COMMUNITY   WELFARE 

than  the  immediate  damage  which  has  been  done.  The 
injured  person  may  become  a  care  on  the  community  and 
cease  to  be  engaged  in  useful  labor.  The  property  which 
has  been  destroyed  may  not  be  rebuilt,  because  the  owner 
has  lost  so  much  money  in  the  fire.  This  means  a  serious 
loss  to  the  community  as  a  whole.  In  order  to  reduce 
both  to  the  individual  and  to  the  community  the  evils 
resulting  from  these  accidents,  we  have  established  both 
accident  and  fire  insurance.  When  the  risks  have  been 
figured  out,  it  is  possible  to  tell  just  about  how  much  money 
must  be  paid  in  by  a  certain  number  of  people  in  order 
to  make  possible  the  payment  of  a  stated  sum  in  case  of 
accident  or  fire.  As  the  law  requires  that  when  workmen 
are  injured  while  at  their  work  the  employers  shall  be 
held  responsible  financially  for  their  injuries,  many  em- 
ployers are  insuring  themselves  in  accident  insurance 
companies  against  such  loss.  By  means  of  insurance,  you 
see,  any  loss  may  be  distributed  over  the  entire  community, 
instead  of  being  borne  by  one  individual. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  FURTHER   STUDY  AND    DISCUSSION 

1.  If  your  class  or  school  has  a  saving  fund,  explain  how  it  is  man- 
aged. 

2.  What  are  some  of  the  ways  in  which  boys  and  girls  can  earn 
money  and  at  the  same  time  be  performing  useful  service  to  the  com- 
munity ? 

3.  What  do  you  understand  by  the  interest  which  is  paid  on  money 
placed  in  savings  funds  ?  What  is  the  current  rate  of  interest  on  money 
at  the  banks? 

4.  Explain  how  by  making  use  of  banks  we  may  make  our  money 
work  for  us  and  earn  us  more  money. 

5.  Why  is  a  United  States  government  bond  considered  the  safest 
investment  ? 


WEALTH  249 

6.  What  are  some  of  the  advantages  of  a  building  and  loan  associ- 
ation as  a  place  to  save  money? 

7.  What  are  some  of  the  sources  of  the  paper  money  which  we 
use  ?  Explain  how  it  is  that  a  piece  of  paper  money  can  actually  be  of 
value. 

8.  Why  are  checks  used  ?  Of  what  advantage  are  they  over  the 
handling  of  cash  ?    What  precautions  should  be  taken  in  using  them  ? 

9.  What  is  the  difference  between  borrowing  money  on  security 
for  the  purpose  of  business,  and  borrowing  as  in  the  case  of  borrowing 
from  a  friend?  Banks  make  a  business  of  lending  money.  Under 
what  conditions  do  they  do  this? 

10.  What  is  meant  by  the  terms  "  straight  life  "  and  "  endowment  " 
in  life  insurance? 

11.  Why  should  a  man  with  dependents  carry  life  insurance? 

12.  Some  countries  have  old  age  insurance  and  make  it  compulsory 
on  all  citizens.     Why? 

13.  Make  a  list  of  the  various  forms  of  insurance  which  you  have 
in  your  community. 

14.  Explain  how  a  business  man  may  protect  himself  by  taking  out 
fire  insurance. 

15.  Time  is  even  more  valuable  than  money.  Explain  some  of  the 
measures  which  are  taken  by  the  community  to  save  time. 

16.  What  is  meant  by  budget  making  in  the  home?  Prepare  a 
simple  plan  showing  how  you  would  apportion  your  salary  if  you  were 
receiving  one  so  as  to  be  able  to  spend  the  money  most  profitably  and 
also  allow  for  some  saving. 

17.  Show  how  careless  spending  results  in  waste. 

18.  Tell  what  you  know  about  the  food  conservation  movement. 

CONSERVATION  OF  NATURAL  RESOURCES 

We  have  seen  how  important  the  great  natural  re- 
sources of  our  country  have  been  in  the  production  of  its 
wealth  and  prosperity.  Nature  seemed  to  have  been 
particularly  bountiful  with  America,  when  she  scattered 
her  gifts.  The  vast  forests,  the  fertile  valleys,  the  broad 
rivers,  the  wealth  of  minerals,  all  made  America  a  land  where 


250         THE   ELEMENTS  OF  COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

wealth  could  be  developed  quickly  and  in  great  abundance. 
Much  of  the  natural  resources,  too,  was  so  easy  of  access, 
that  it  seemed  as  if  one  need  but  stretch  out  his  hand  to  re- 
ceive it.  So  often,  however,  when  things  are  available 
in  such  abundance,  we  fail  to  appreciate  their  true  value, 
or  the  fact  that  there  is  a  limit  to  the  supply  and  that 
some  day  the  supply  may  be  exhausted.  There  was  so 
much  to  be  had  in  the  early  days,  and  the  desire  to  get  it 
was  so  great,  that  the  policy  seemed  to  be  to  take  the  best 
as  quickly  as  possible,  regardless  of  the  effect  the  method 
of  getting  would  have  on  that  which  was  left.  We  have 
been  one  of  the  most  wasteful  and  extravagant  nations 
in  the  world.  The  result  is  that  to-day  with  our  teeming 
millions  it  is  necessary  for  us  to  exercise  every  precaution 
lest  we  sooner  or  later  come  to  want. 

It  has  not  been  so  many  years  since  men  first  began 
to  give  earnest  attention  to  this  problem  of  "  conservation  " 
as  it  is  called.  Conservation  is  merely  another  name 
for  saving.  It  was  not  a  particularly  popular  problem 
at  first,  for  it  meant  that  some  people  who  were  squan- 
dering the  natural  resources  of  the  nation  for  the  sake  of 
increasing  their  own  riches  were  going  to  be  hindered 
in  their  ruthless  destruction  and  waste.  The  leaders 
in  this  new  movement  found  an  able  friend  and  ally  in 
Theodore  Roosevelt  when  he  was  President.  With  his  wide 
knowledge  of  the  country,  his  great  zeal  and  courage,  he 
threw  himself  heartily  in  with  the  movement.  As  a  result 
of  the  education  of  the  people  and  such  legislation  as  could 
be  passed,  a  splendid  beginning  was  made  looking  toward 
the  conservation  of  the  natural  resources  of  the  country. 


WEALTH  251 

The  Conservation  of  Forests.  —  The  early  settlers 
found  our  country  covered  with  wonderful  forests.  About 
one  half  of  the  entire  country  was  covered  with  trees. 
From  the  forests  the  settlers  got  the  wood  for  their  homes, 
the  fuel  for  their  fires,  and  the  timber  for  their  ships.  It 
was  but  natural  that  with  the  increase  of  population  much 
of  the  forests  should  be  cut  down.  If  the  proper  care 
had  been  exercised,  there  would  have  been  an  abundance 
of  wood  for  all  necessary  purposes.  The  clearing  away 
of  the  forests,  and  the  lumbering,  however,  was  carried  on 
in  a  way  which  was  wasteful  and  destructive.  Careless 
cutting  of  trees  resulted  in  the  destruction  of  much  more 
wood  than  was  secured.  Smaller  trees  were  cut  down  merely 
that  the  larger  ones  could  be  reached  more  quickly.  Then, 
too,  carelessness  in  the  use  of  fire  led  to  the  great  forest 
fires  which  destroyed  mile  after  mile  of  wonderful  forest 
land.  When  we  consider  that  along  with  such  methods 
we  were  cutting  down  about  three  times  as  much  each 
year  as  grew  up,  we  can  easily  see  that  it  was  but  a  matter 
of  time  before  our  forests  would  disappear.  In  order  to 
prevent  this  disaster,  nearly  two  hundred  million  acres 
of  land  have  been  set  apart  as  forest  reserves.  Under  the 
direction  of  expert  foresters,  these  splendid  forests  are 
being  preserved. 

Conservation  of  Water.  —  We  have  seen  how  care- 
lessness in  the  use  of  water  for  household  purposes  may 
lead  to  great  loss  to  a  city  both  through  the  wastage  of 
much  needed  water  and  also  of  the  money  which  has  been 
required  to  filter  and  pump  this  water  to  the  homes. 


252  THE   ELEMENTS  OF   COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

One  of  the  problems  in  forest  conservation  is  the  pres- 
ervation of  the  trees  around  the  sources  of  our  rivers. 
The  trees  play  an  important  part  in  regulating  and  con- 
trolling the  flow  of  water.  The  destruction  of  such  forests 
frequently  results  in  disastrous  floods. 

We  have  seen  that  the  rivers  play  an  important  part  in 
the  transportation  of  the  country.  The  usefulness  of 
many  of  these  rivers  is  dependent  upon  the  care  which  is 
taken  to  keep  the  channels  properly  cleared  and  deepened. 
Then,  too,  there  are  lakes  and  rivers  which  will  only  be 
of  service  when  canals  have  been  built  which  connect  with 
other  lakes  or  rivers.  Water  transportation  is  such  a 
cheap  way  of  sending  certain  kinds  of  goods  that  if  it  were 
given  up  it  would  be  a  decided  loss  to  the  country.  The 
government,  therefore,  encourages  in  every  way  possible 
the  use  of  rivers  and  canals  for  transportation. 

Business  interests  have  been  quick  to  grasp  the  opportu- 
nity afforded  by  the  great  waterfalls  of  the  country,  such 
as  Niagara,  for  generating  electricity.  To-day  more  than 
half  of  these  waterfalls  are  owned  by  private  individuals 
or  corporations.  These  constitute  a  natural  resource  of 
the  country  and  should  be  used  for  the  best  interests  of 
the  entire  group.  Such  places  should  be  held  by  the  gov- 
ernment. 

Conservation  of  Land.  —  The  problem  of  conservation 
includes  not  only  the  prevention  of  destruction  of  that 
which  is  valuable,  but  also  the  development  of  that  which 
may  be  made  valuable.  There  are  millions  of  acres  of 
land  especially  in  the  West  which  are  often  spoken  of  as 


WEALTH  253 

the  desert  lands  of  America.  That  these  lands  are  barren 
is  due  to  the  absence  of  water,  for  the  land  itself  is  the 
richest  we  have.  The  process  of  getting  the  water  to  the 
land  is  called  irrigation. 

Much  work  has  been  done  in  such  districts  by  private 
enterprise  and  by  the  national  government.  Great  dams 
have  been  built  which  store  up  the  water  of  some  river. 
Then  by  building  canals  this  water  is  carried  down  into 
the  desert  lands. 

This  work  has  been  done  under  the  direction  of  the 
Bureau  of  Reclamation  of  the  Department  of  the  Interior. 
Money  derived  from  the  sale  of  public  lands  in  the  West 
has  been  set  aside  for  the  reclamation  of  arid  lands.  With 
this  money  the  government  constructs  the  necessary 
irrigation  works.  As  soon  as  the  work  is  completed,  the 
land  is  opened  to  settlers.  Each  settler  is  allowed  forty 
acres  for  a  homestead.  The  settlers  form  a  water  users' 
association  for  the  purpose  of  paying  the  expenses  of  op- 
erating the  works,  and  also  to  repay  the  government  for 
the  construction  of  the  works.  Many  millions  of  acres 
of  land  have  been  so  irrigated.  The  land  is  so  fertile 
that  the  yield  is  abundant,  giving  the  farmer  good  profit 
on  his  investment  and  labor. 

Conservation  of  our  Mineral  Resources.  -*-  Just  as 
there  has  been  carelessness  in  foresting,  so  there  has  been 
in  the  development  of  our  mineral  resources.  In  the 
rush  to  get  rich  through  the  coal  and  iron  and  other  min- 
erals, the  principal  thought  of  the  owners  was  speed.  Care- 
less and  extravagant  methods  of  mining  were  introduced, 


From  a  photograph  by  the  U.  S.  Reclamation  Service 

Irrigable  Land  in  Washington  State  before  Reclamation 


From  a  photograph  by  the  U.  S.  Reclamation  Service 

Apple  Orchard,  Washington  State,  the  Result  of  Reclamation 


WEALTH  255 

with  the  result  that  there  was  a  great  waste  of  our 
valuable  minerals.  To-day  we  are  beginning  to  face  a 
shortage  in  many  of  these.  But  the  wastage  has  not  only 
been  at  the  mine.  In  home  and  factory,  on  railroad  and 
steamship,  coal  has  been  used  most  extravagantly.  The 
smoke  which  comes  from  the  stacks  is  a  sign  of  waste. 
Often  the  ashes  from  our  homes  are  filled  with  pieces  of 
unburned  coal.  The  control  of  this  will  have  to  come 
largely  through  the  state  government,  and  through  the 
education  of  the  people  as  to  the  inevitable  results  if  our 
present  wasteful   methods  are  continued. 

Conservation  of  Animal  Life.  —  If  we  have  ever  gorier 
fishing  or  hunting  we  will  know  that  there  are  certain 
very  strict  rules  concerning  both.  The  state,  in  order  to 
protect  the  game,  has  passed  laws  laying  down  the  seasons 
when  certain  animals  and  fish  may  or  may  not  be  taken. 
We  also  have  restrictions  on  the  waste  which  a  mill  may 
throw  into  streams,  for  often  this  results  in  killing  the  fish. 
The  national  government  aids  in  conservation  by  making 
it  contrary  to  law  to  send  from  one  state  to  another  the 
plumage  of  certain  birds.  It  has  also  passed  strict  laws 
to  protect  the  buffalo,  the  reindeer,  and  the  seal. 

Conservation  of  Human  Life.  —  More  important  than 
all  of  these,  however,  is  the  conservation  of  human  life. 
We  have  seen  in  our  study  of  the  topics  "  Health  and  the 
Protection  of  Life  and  Property "  some  of  the  ways  in 
which  this  is  being  carried  on. 


256  THE   ELEMENTS   OF   COMMUNITY   WELFARE 

SUGGESTIONS   FOR  FURTHER   STUDY   AND    DISCUSSION 

1.  Is  Arbor  day  observed  by  the  schools  of  your  state  ?     If  so,  why  ? 

2.  Write  to  your  state  department  of  forestry  for  literature  on  the 
state  forests. 

3.  What  are  some  of  the  restrictions  on  lumbering  in  your  state? 
What  measures  are  taken  to  prevent  forest  fires? 

4.  Write  to  the  forest  service  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  at 
Washington  for  literature  on  the  national  forests. 

5.  What  are  some  of  the  values  of  forests  to  our  country? 

6.  What  is  the  national  government  doing  to  conserve  our  forests  ? 

7.  Make  a  list  of  some  of  the  sources  of  waste  of  water  in  your 
community.  Explain  how  this  affects  both  the  cost  and  condition  of 
the  water. 

8.  "  The  Winning  of  Barbara  Worth  "  is  an  interesting  story  of  the 
reclaiming  of  the  desert  lands  of  the  West. 

9.  What  are  some  of  the  fish  and  game  laws  of  your  state  ? 

GOVERNMENT  PROTECTION,  PROMOTION,    AND    CONTROL 

OF  WEALTH 

We  have  seen  that  wealth  includes  many,  many  things, 
the  clothes  which  we  wear,  the  money  which  we  spend, 
the  food  we  eat,  the  houses  in  which  we  live,  the  cars  in 
which  we  ride,  and  a  long  list  of  other  things,  which  make 
up  so  important  a  part  of  our  everyday  life.  These  rep- 
resent the  wealth  which  each  member  of  the  community 
desires  and  for  which  each  one  is  striving.  Since  we  are 
"  many  in  one,"  a  community,  it  is  necessary  that  the 
rights  of  each  be  respected.  The  community,  in  seeking 
to  promote  the  interest  of  the  entire  group,  must  care 
for  the  interest  of  each  member  of  the  group.  Condi- 
tions must  as  far  as  possible  be  so  arranged  that  each  one 
shall  have  an  equal  opportunity  for  securing  those  things 
which  he  desires.  Equality  of  opportunity  is  vital  to  the 
existence  of  a  democracy. 


WEALTH  257 

The  organized  community  should  endeavor  to  so  set 
and  control  the  situation  that  each  member  shall  have 
the  same  opportunities.  We  are  each  one  of  us  members 
of  three  governmental  communities  at  the  same  time. 
First,  there  is  the  local  community,  city,  or  town,  or  village, 
where  we  live.  Then  there  is  the  larger  community  or 
state,  of  which  the  smaller  community  is  a  part.  Finally, 
there  is  the  largest  community,  the  nation,  of  which 
both  state  and  city  or  town  are  parts.  Each  one  of  these 
communities  is  busily  engaged  in  so  protecting  our  inter- 
ests, assisting  in  the  developing  and  regulating  the  use 
of  wealth,  that  the  welfare  of  all  may  be  achieved. 

In  our  definition  of  a  community  we  saw  that  not  only 
was  it  necessary  that  the  group  of  people  have  interests 
in  common,  but  that  they  must  also  be  subject  to  common 
law.  Now,  a  law  is  merely  a  guide  to  right  action.  It 
is  the  expression  of  the  desires  or  wishes  of  the  group  as 
to  how  certain  things  should  be  done,  and  as  to  what  it  does 
not  wish  to  have  done.  Since  the  great  part  of  the  life 
of  the  community  is  spent  in  the  production,  distribu- 
tion, and  use  of  wealth,  we  can  see  how  great  the  necessity 
must  be  for  definite  rules  respecting  these.  We  have  from 
time  to  time  made  mention  of  things  which  the  community 
was  doing  in  its  organized  capacity  as  government  to  aid 
in  the  production  of  wealth.  There  are  some  additional 
matters  which  demand  our  attention. 

The  Tariff.  —  If  you  will  turn  to  your  history  of  the 
United  States  you  will  find  that  the  subject  of  the  tariff 
has  been  an  important  one  for  about  a  century.  The 
word  tariff  merely  means  a  schedule  of  rates.     As  used  in 


258         THE   ELEMENTS   OF   COMMUNITY   WELFARE 

our  histories  it  applies  to  the  rates  of  tax  which  are  laid 
on  goods  being  brought  into  the  country.  This  kind  of 
tax  may  be  laid  only  by  the  national  government.  The 
government  needs  money  to  meet  its  expenses,  and  this 
is  one  of  the  methods  which  is  used. 

The  relation  of  the  tariff  to  the  business  of  the  country, 
however,  lies  chiefly  in  its  use  to  protect  the  manufacturers 
of  the  country.  There  was  a  time  when  the  giant  indus- 
tries which  we  know  to-day  were  in  their  infancy.  Manu- 
facturers in  Europe,  because  of  the  lower  wages  paid  there, 
were  able  to  send  goods  all  the  way  to  America  and  still  be 
able  to  sell  them  at  a  lower  price  than  that  which  the 
American  manufacturer  could  afford  to  take.  It  was 
necessary,  therefore,  if  these  new  industries  were  to  be  pro- 
tected and  developed,  that  such  unequal  competition  be 
removed.  In  order  to  accomplish  this  a  high  schedule  of 
rates  was  put  into  effect  by  Congress,  which  made  the 
importer  of  European  goods  pay  such  a  high  tax  to  get  the 
goods  into  the  country  that  he  could  not  compete  with 
the  American  manufacturer.  This  was  called  a' high  pro- 
tective tariff. 

The  tariff  question  has  been  for  many  years  a  political 
issue.  This  is  unfortunate,  because  it  is  not  a  political 
question,  but  what  is  called  an  economic  problem.  That 
is,  there  are  certain  business  laws  which  should  decide  as 
to  the  amount  of  the  tariff  and  whether  it  should  be  pro- 
tective or  not.  Formerly  a  change  in  political  power 
meant  an  entire  revision  of  the  tariff.  This  frequently 
upset  the  business"  condition  of  the  country.  It  also  re- 
tarded development,  as  men  were  afraid  to  put  their  capital 


WEALTH  259 

into  certain  industries  for  fear  the  tariff  would  be  changed 
and  they  would  fail  in  business.  Recently  a  Federal 
Tariff  Commission  has  been  established.  This  commis- 
sion has  the  power  to  recommend  changes  in  the  tariff 
which  it  finds  to  be  desirable. 

Forms  of  Business.  —  Along  with  the  improved  methods 
of  production  and  the  extension  of  the  division  of  labor, 
has  come  a  tremendous  development  in  the  management 
and  control  of  business.  Formerly  manufacturing  was 
what  the  word  really  means,  making  by  hand.  To-day 
it  is  done  almost  entirely  by  means  of  power  driven  ma- 
chines. Then  it  was  conducted  in  a  small  way,  often  one 
or  two  men  representing  the  entire  working  force.  To-day 
the  employees  of  a  manufacturing  plant  are  numbered 
by  the  thousands.  The  management  of  such  business  is  a 
great  problem.  There  is  the  all-important  question  of  the 
investment  of  money  which  is  necessary  for  such  a  plant. 
We  still  find  great  plants  owned  and  controlled  by  one 
man.  Of  course  it  is  necessary  that  he  employ  very  ca- 
pable people  to  act  as  superintendents  and  overseers.  Fre- 
quently we  find  such  businesses  conducted  by  partners. 
Two  or.  three  people  who  have  the  money  to  invest  will 
organize  themselves  into  a  partnership  for  the  purpose  of 
establishing  a  business.  The  profits  of  the  business  are 
divided  among  the  partners  on  the  basis  of  the  amount 
of  money  which  they  have  invested. 

Corporation.  —  Very  large  businesses  are  usually  con- 
ducted under  the  management  of  a  company,  or  corpora- 
tion as  it  is  usually  called.     Corporations  receive  from  a 


260         THE   ELEMENTS   OF   COMMUNITY  WELFARE 

state  a  charter  which  states  the  kind  of  business  which  they 
are  to  be  engaged  in  and  the  amount  of  stock  which  may  be 
issued.  The  stock  of  the  corporation  is  sold  in  shares, 
usually  of  one  hundred  dollars  each.  In  this  manner  the 
money  for  the  establishment  or  development  of  the  busi- 
ness is  obtained.  For  the  conduct  of  business  the  stock- 
holders elect  officers  and  a  board  of  directors  who  look  after 
the  business  for  them.  The  earnings  of  the  company  are 
distributed  among  the  stockholders  in  the  form  of  dividends. 

Trusts.  —  Trusts  are  combinations  of  corporations  for 
the  purpose  of  regulating  prices  and  buying  and  selling  the 
commodities  produced  at  the  best  possible  advantage. 
Several  corporations  engaged  in  the  same  business  will  turn 
their  stock  over  to  a  committee  of  trustees  who  direct 
the  business  of  all  the  corporations.  There  are  certain 
conditions  under  which  such  combinations  of  big  business 
may  be  of  great  service.  There  is,  however,  always  the 
danger  that  unfair  advantage  will  be  taken  of  the  public. 
When  a  trust  gets  into  the  position  where  it  can  control 
practically  the  entire  supply  of  any  one  article  it  becomes 
dangerous  to  the  welfare  of  the  community.  The  danger 
lies  in  the  temptation  to  the  trustees  to  increase  the  earn- 
ings of  the  trust  by  taking  an  unfair  advantage  of  their 
control  and  using  it  to  get  exorbitant  prices  out  of  the 
public.  Congress  has  passed  laws  which  make  certain 
combinations  "  in  restraint  of  trade  "  illegal. 

SUGGESTIONS   FOR  FURTHER   STUDY  AND    DISCUSSION 

i.  Make  a  list  of  some  of  the  ways  in  which  the  state  government 
aids  the  worker.     Do  the  same  for  the  national  government. 


WEALTH  261 

2.  How  is  the  employer  aided  by  the  government  in  his  business? 

3.  What  control  does  the  government  exercise  over  the  products 
of  industry  so  as  to  protect  the  consumer? 

4.  Why  is  the  right  to  tax  imported  goods  restricted  to  the  national 
government  ? 

5.  What  is  the  customs  house?    What  are  the  duties  of  the  customs 
house  officers  ? 

6.  Subject  for  debate:  "  Resolved  that  trusts  are  detrimental  to  the 
welfare  of  the  community." 


THE  WARDS   OF  THE   COMMUNITY 

CHAPTER  XVI 

CHARITIES 

With  all  the  great  wealth  which  exists  in  our  country, 
you  would  think  that  there  should  be  no  need  for  any  one 
being  poor.  At  least  it  would  seem  that  there  is  no  reason 
why  there  should  be  suffering  because  of  poverty.  And 
yet  if  we  walk  through  our  city  streets  we  see  evidences 
all  around  us  that  there  are  members  of  the  community 
who  for  some  reason  or  other  do  not  have  the  neces- 
sities of  life.  Suppose  we  were  to  investigate  a  few  such 
cases,  let  us  see  what  we  should  find. 

Causes  of  Poverty.  —  Here  is  a  family  where  the 
father  is  confined  to  his  bed  with  some  wasting  disease. 
He  has  been  away  from  his  work  now  for  several  weeks. 
The  small  savings  which  he  has  been  able  to  lay  by  have 
been  exhausted.  The  mother  is  unable  to  go  out  to  work 
because  of  the  two  small  children  who  demand  her  con- 
stant care,  and  also  because  the  husband  cannot  well  be 
left  alone  all  day.  In  the  early  hours  of  the  evening  the 
mother  has  slipped  away  from  the  home  and  is  begging 
on  the  streets.  She  has  been  unable  to  get  more  than  a 
few  pennies,  because  people  have  been  deceived  so  many 
times  by  stories  such  as  she  has  to  tell.  We  visit  the  home, 
however,  and  find  conditions  as  described. 

262 


CHARITIES  263 

Again  we  might  find  a  family  where  because  of  some 
physical  defect,  such  as  blindness,  or  the  loss  of  an  arm  or  a 
leg  through  an  accident,  the  breadwinner  has  been  unable 
to  earn  sufficient  money  to  keep  up  with  the  expenses  of 
running  the  home.  Or  it  may  be  that  some  industrial 
disturbance  has  thrown  members  of  the  family  out  of  em- 
ployment. Again,  the  unemployment  may  be  due  to  lack 
of  skill  in  a  trade.  An  unscrupulous  employer  may 
have  taken  advantage  of  an  oversupply  of  the  labor  market 
and  been  paying  starvation  wages.  Or  the  heads  of  the 
family  may  be  just  naturally  lazy  and  shiftless  and  prefer 
to  live  on  the  gifts  of  others  rather  than  earn  their  own 
livelihood.  These  and  many  other  causes  are  responsible 
for  the  poverty  in  our  communities. 

Classes  of  Dependents.  —  If  we  examine  a  list  of  the 
causes  of  poverty  we  find  that  the  people  who  are  repre- 
sented group  themselves  into  three  main  classes.  First, 
there  is  the  group  of  men  and  women  who  are  willing  and 
eager  to  work  but  who  because  of  some  conditions  over 
which  they  have  no  control  are  unable  to  support  them- 
selves. This  condition  may  be  illness,  or  some  misfortune, 
such, as  an  accident,  or  duties  which  make  it  impossible 
for  them  to  go  to  work.  Second,  there  is  the  group  of 
men  and  women  who  are  able  to  work,  but  who  because 
of  lack  of  training  or  skill  are  unable  to  obtain  employment, 
or  having  obtained  employment  are  unable  to  earn  suffi- 
cient to  support  themselves  and  their  families.  Third, 
there  is  the  group  of  men  and  women  who  are  able  to  work 
and  can  obtain   employment,  but  who   are   unwilling  to 


264  THE  WARDS  OF  THE   COMMUNITY 

work  and  prefer  to  live  on  the  results  of  the  work  of 
others. 

In  almost  every  community  we  are  likely  to  find  examples 
of  one  or  all  of  these  classes.  For  those  in  the  first  two 
groups,  provision  must  be  made,  either  to  provide  when 
necessary  for  their  permanent  care  and  protection,  or  to 
assist  them  temporarily,  and,  at  the  same  time,  help  them 
to  regain  their  health,  develop  the  necessary  skill,  or  what- 
ever else  may  be  required  to  put  them  on  their  feet,  and 
make  them  independent  of  the  support  of  the  community. 
Those  in  the  third  group  should  not  be  allowed  to  live  like 
parasites  upon  the  others,  but  should  be  compelled  to  be- 
come self-supporting. 

There  are  two  other  classes  of  people  who  are  dependent 
upon  the  aid  and  support  of  the  community,  but  in  a 
different  way  from  those  which  we  have  just  mentioned. 
All  of  us  during  the  earliest  years  of  our  life  were  entirely 
dependent  upon  others.  Even  now,  while  we  are  going  to 
school,  we  are  to  a  more  or  less  extent  dependent.  We 
do  not,  however,  consider  such  dependency  as  being  the 
same  as  that  which  we  have  just  been  mentioning.  In 
fact,  the  boy  or  girl  in  school  who  is  making  the  best  pos- 
sible use  of  the  time  at  hand  is  anything  but  dependent. 
He  is  spending  the  days  which  are  going  to  determine  very 
largely  his  measure  of  fitness,  not  only  to  support  himself, 
but  also  to  be  of  aid  to  the  entire  community  in  later  years. 
Then,  too,  some  very  old  people  are  dependent  upon  others. 
These  folk  have  rendered  their  service  to  the  community, 
and  it  is  but  right  that  they  should  be  taken  care  of.  If 
one,  however,  has  been  thrifty,  and  has  not  had  ill  fortune, 


CHARITIES  265 

he  will  have  provided  against  old  age.  It  is  a  worthy 
ambition  to  aim  to  have  sufficient  money  to  be  self-support- 
ing in  old  age.  It  is  also  the  one  sure  way  of  making 
certain  that  we  shall  not  become  burdens  on  the  com- 
munity. 

Giving  Aid.  —  Let  us  imagine  that  we  have  been  ap- 
pealed to  for  assistance  by  some  one  from  one  of  these 
three  groups  which  we  have  been  considering.  Most 
people  are  kind-hearted,  and  the  thought  that  some  one 
else  is  suffering  is  a  sure  means  of  getting  them  to  open 
their  pocketbooks.  If,  then,  we  give  to  the  beggar  as 
best  we  are  able,  a  penny,  a  nickel,  or  a  quarter,  just 
what  have  we  done?  If  every  one  appealed  to  was 
so  liberal,  how  much  money  do  you  suppose  the  beggar 
could  collect  in  a  few  hours?  An  honorable  person  would 
stop  begging  as  soon  as  he  had  sufficient.  There  would, 
however,  be  quite  a  temptation  to  get  all  one  could.  Beg- 
ging would  indeed  be  a  profitable  business,  and  we  would 
soon  meet  with  so  many  requests  that  we  would  either 
have  to  stop  giving  or  have  nothing  left  for  ourselves. 
Of  course  this  never  happens.  Except  in  the  case  of  the 
blind  the  amount  taken  by  begging  is  seldom  large.  Our 
little  contribution  may  help  in  a  case  of  real  need  for  a 
little  while,  but  the  cause  of  the  poverty  still  remains  and 
the  begging  must  continue.  What  we  have  done  has  been 
to  ease  our  own  conscience.  On  the  other  hand  we  do 
not  wish  to  pass  a  case  of  real  suffering  without  doing  some- 
thing to  help.  What  are  we  to  do,  and  how  may  we  know 
when  and  when  not  to  help? 


266  THE  WARDS  OF  THE   COMMUNITY 

SUGGESTIONS   FOR  FURTHER   STUDY  AND    DISCUSSION 

i.  What  are  some  of  the  causes  for  poverty  which  exists  in  your 
community  ? 

2.  What  effect  has  the  enforcement  of  the  national  prohibition  amend- 
ment had  on  your  community? 

3.  Is  a  person  who  understands  a  good  trade  as  likely  to  become 
dependent  upon  the  community  as  one  who  does  not?    Why  not? 

4.  Explain  how  the  workmen's  compensation  laws  operate  to  re- 
move one  cause  of  poverty. 

5.  Explain  how  a  person  who  has  been  thrifty  and  has  saved  suffi- 
cient money  to  live  comfortably  in  old  age  has  been  rendering  a  serv- 
ice both  to  himself  and  the  community. 

CHARITABLE  ORGANIZATIONS 

In  our  large  cities  and  towns  appeals  for  aid  come  so 
frequently  that  even  if  we  had  the  time  we  could  scarcely 
visit  the  home  of  every  beggar  who  approached  us  on  the 
streets  and  investigate  to  find  out  whether  the  story  told 
was  correct  or  not.  This  is,  however,  a  real  need  in  the 
community,  and  in  order  that  such  work  may  be  done 
we  find  charitable  organizations  which  will  do  this  very 
thing  for  us  if  we  request.  We  should  know  the  names 
of  the  leading  charitable  organizations  of  our  community 
and  where  they  are  located.  When  we  are  approached 
by  some  one  requesting  help  if  we  really  wish  to  help  them 
we  should  communicate  at  once  with  one  of  these  charitable 
organizations.  Supplied  with  the  name  and  address  of 
the  person  who  has  asked  for  help,  a  worker  from  the 
society  will  visit  the  home,  investigate  the  conditions, 
and  report  back  to  the  society.  The  society  will  inform 
us  as  to  their  findings  if  we  make  the  request.  If  we 
are  then  still  anxious  to  help  we  may  either  go  directly  to 


CHARITIES  267 

the  home  with  such  assistance  as  the  society  officers  sug- 
gest, or  contribute  to  the  society  with  the  instructions 
that  the  money  is  to  be  used  to  help  the  family  which 
is  in  trouble. 

Not  only  does  the  charitable  society  see  that  immediate 
temporary  relief  is  given,  but  they  follow  up  the  case.  If 
it  is  a  case  of  lack  of  employment  they  will  secure  work  for 
the  breadwinner.  If  there  is  illness  the  society  will  see 
that  medical  assistance  is  secured,  and  if  necessary  hos- 
pital treatment.  A  visitor  from  the  society  will  follow 
up  the  case  until  the  family  has  been  placed  firmly  on  its 
feet  once  more  and  is  able  to  take  care  of  itself.  This  is 
usually  a  long  process  and  takes  much  time  and  skilful 
handling.  The  workers  of  these  societies  are  especially 
trained  to  handle  just  such  problems  and  are  far  better 
able  to  look  after  the  interests  of  the  poor  than  the  average 
well-meaning  citizen  without  training. 

In  most  of  our  cities  we  find  a  more  or  less  strongly 
organized  charitable  organization.  This  sometimes  takes 
the  form  of  a  society  for  organizing  charity.  It  is  usually 
dependent  upon  the  gifts  of  charitable  people  for  its  sup- 
port, although  in  some  places  it  receives  some  support 
from  the  local  authorities  and  from  the  state.  In  ad- 
dition to  this  we  find  most  churches  engaged  in  some  form 
of  relief  work.  Then,  too,  there  are  the  relief  divisions 
of  the  various  fraternal  organizations.  These,  however, 
are  primarily  concerned  with  relieving  distress  among 
their  own  members.  Many  of  our  large  business  corpora- 
tions maintain  a  relief  and  social  service  department,  but 
here  again  the  work  is  confined  to  the  employees  of  the 


268  THE   WARDS  OF  THE   COMMUNITY 

concern.  The  Social  Settlements  which  are  conducted 
under  the  direction  of  the  Universities  and  Schools  of 
Philanthropy  usually  do  considerable  to  relieve  the  con- 
ditions existing  in  their  neighborhoods.  Here  we  will 
find  the  men  and  women  who  are  in  training  to  prepare 
themselves  for  a  life  of  social  service. 

Many  cases  which  are  referred  to  these  societies  by 
people  who  have  been  approached  by  beggars  on  the 
street  are  found  to  be  unworthy,  and  in  some  cases  not 
even  to  reside  at  the  addresses  which  they  have  given. 
This  is  rather  clear  proof  that  such  cases  are  unworthy. 
In  fact  the  genuinely  worthy  poor  seldom  if  ever  resort  to 
begging.  To  give  money  to  the  unworthy  is  merely  aid- 
ing them  in  their  shirking  of  responsibility.  The  pro- 
fessional beggar  is  little  better  than  the  criminal,  in  fact, 
many  of  them  will  not  hesitate  to  steal  when  there  is  a  good 
opportunity.  To  aid  such  people  is  to  further  pauperize 
them  and  render  them  undesirable  citizens. 

The  Registration  Bureau.  —  At  times  even  the  best 
workers  of  the  charitable  organizations  are  deceived  for  a 
while  as  to  the  worthiness  of  certain  cases.  Where  con- 
ditions have  been  favorable  it  has  been  known  that  cer- 
tain families  have  appealed  to  and  received  aid  from  a 
number  of  different  charitable  institutions  at  the  same 
time.  In  order  to  prevent  this  we  usually  find  a  central 
clearing  house  where  all  cases  are  reported.  This  is 
sometimes  spoken  of  as  a  Registration  Bureau.  It  enables 
any  society  to  which  an  appeal  has  been  made  to  find  out 
whether  or  not  aid  has  been  given  previously  by  any  other 


CHARITIES  269 

society  to  this  family.  Such  a  clearing  house  saves  need- 
less duplication  of  effort  on  the  part  of  societies  making 
use  of  it,  and  protects  the  societies  from  fraud. 

Methods  of  Relief.  —  There  are  two  methods  by  which 
the  needs  of  a  community  for  relief  are  met.  First,  the 
family  which  is  in  distress  may  be  kept  together  in  their 
own  home,  receiving  there  such  assistance  as  will  enable 
them  if  possible  to  make  a  new  start.  Second,  those  in 
need  of  assistance  may  be  removed  to  an  institution.  The 
first  method,  while  the  more  costly,  is  the  better,  for  it  holds 
the  family  together.  The  second  method  is  cheaper,  but 
it  results  in  the  breaking  up  of  the  family. 

When  the  relief  is  being  administered  in  the  home,  the 
society  does  everything  in  its  power  to  remove  the  cause 
of  the  distress.  Medical  assistance  is  given,  food  and 
clothing  supplied,  work  secured  for  the  breadwinner.  A 
visitor  pays  regular  visits  to  the  home  to  see  how  they  are 
getting  along.  Often  much  encouragement  is  needed  to 
make  such  people  feel  that  it  is  worth  while  to  be  self- 
supporting.  The  visitor  and  the  society  continue  their 
efforts  until  the  family  is  well  established  again. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY  AND    DISCUSSION 

1.  Make  a  list  of  the  charitable  organizations  in  your  community. 
How  are  they  supported? 

2.  What  advantage  is  there  in  having  a  charitable  organization  look 
after  cases  of  need? 

3.  What  would  you  consider  some  of  the  necessary  qualifications 
for  a  person  who  is  going  to  become  a  worker  for  a  charitable  organ- 
ization?   Why  is  training  necessary? 

4.  What  advantage  is  it  to  the  community  to  keep  the  family  together 
while  aid  is  being  given? 


270  THE   WARDS  OF  THE   COMMUNITY 

CHARITABLE   INSTITUTIONS 

If  we  look  over  our  community  we  shall  find  many  in- 
stitutions which  have  been  established  for  the  care  of  those 
who  are  dependent  upon  the  community.  Some  of  these 
are  private  charities  which  are  assisted  by  grants  from 
the  local  community,  the  county,  and  the  state.  Then  there 
are  the  public  institutions  which  are  supported  entirely 
by  the  local  county  or  state  community.  Among  the 
private  institutions  we  have  orphan  asylums,  and  homes 
for  the  aged,  most  of  which  are  supported  by  some  church 
or  fraternal  organization.  The  public  institutions  usually 
include  a  poorhouse  or  poor  farm,  hospitals  for  the  care  of 
the  insane,  schools  for  the  blind,  and  deaf  and  dumb. 

Care  of  the  Sick.  —  People  who  are  ill  cannot  take  care 
of  themselves.  When  the  home  conditions  are  such  that 
the  one  who  is  ill  cannot  be  cared  for  properly  the  hospital 
opens  its  doors.  There  are  of  course  our  private  or  semi- 
private  hospitals  where  one  may  by  paying  secure  a  private 
room  and  nurses,  and  have  his  own  physician.  People 
who  are  too  poor  to  afford  this  are  admitted  to  the  wards 
of  institutions  which  receive  city  or  state  aid.  Here  the 
cost  may  be  very  slight  or  even  none  at  all.  For  those 
who  for  any  reason  cannot  get  into  one  of  these  hospitals 
the  community  usually  conducts  a  general  hospital.  Here 
people  who  are  too  poor  to  pay  for  any  medical  treatment 
receive  care  at  the  expense  of  the  community. 

Care  of  the  Insane.  —  There  is  a  class  of  people  in  the 
community  who  are  mentally  ill.  At  one  time  they  have 
been  normal  like  other  people  but  through  some  cause 


CHARITIES  271 

they  have  lost  their  mental  powers.  These  people  are 
called  insane.  Formerly  such  cases  were  locked  up  in 
the  poorhouse  along  with  the  paupers.  To-day,  however, 
we  recognize  that  they  are  sick  people  needing  treatment. 
Hospitals  for  the  insane  are  usually  spoken  of  as  asylums. 
The  present  plan  is  to  have  these  hospitals  built  and 
maintained  by  the  state.  Such  institutions  are  planned 
so  that  the  inmates  can  receive  the  best  treatment  known 
to  medical  science.  Everything  possible  is  done  to  im- 
prove the  condition  of  the  patients  or  relieve  their  suffer- 
ings. Usually  we  find  these  institutions  amid  beautiful 
surroundings.  A  farm  is  maintained  so  that  those  who 
are  able  may  have  the  advantage  of  work  in  the  open  air. 
The  patients  are  taught  useful  trades,  and  this  helps  very 
much  to  improve  their  physical  condition. 

Care  of  the  Feeble-minded.  —  Feeble-minded  people 
differ  from  the  insane,  for  while  the  insane  may  have  at 
one  time  been  normal,  the  feeble-minded  have  never  been 
so.  There  are  all  grades  of  feeble-mindedness,  ranging 
from  that  of  the  idiot  and  imbecile  up  to  the  feeble- 
minded who  is  so  nearly  normal  that  it  is  difficult  to  be 
sure  whether  he  is  or  not.  The  feeble-minded  having  very 
low  mentality  are  usually  sent  to  an  institution  at  an  early 
age.  The  higher  grades  remain  in  society  and  constitute 
a  real  menace.  Feeble-mindedness  cannot  be  cured  so  far 
as  we  know  at  the  present  time.  It  is  also  handed  down 
from  parent  to  child.  So  you  see  it  is  very  necessary 
for  the  public  welfare  that  such  people  be  removed  from 
the  community  and  placed  in  an  institution. 


272  THE   WARDS  OF  THE   COMMUNITY 

The  best  institution  for  feeble-minded  is  one  owned  and 
operated  by  the  state.  These  are  really  big  farm  colonies. 
Here  under  the  direction  of  skilled  teachers  the  feeble- 
minded are  able  to  learn  to  be  at  least  in  part  self-support- 
ing and  spend  their  lives  amid  pleasant  surroundings  and 
without  danger  to  the  state. 

Care  of  Children.  —  Children  become  wards  of  the  state 
through  no  fault  of  their  own.  Often  the  death  of  parents 
throws  a  child  at  infancy  on  the  care  of  the  community. 
At  other  times  it  is  sickness,  accident,  lack  of  employment, 
or  even  ill  treatment  or  desertion  by  parents,  which  leaves 
the  child  helpless.  There  are  many  splendid  schools  and 
homes  for  orphans.  Some  of  these  are  conducted  by 
churches  and  other  charitable  organizations,  others  are 
the  result  of  the  kindness  of  some  individual  who  has  left 
money  for  the  establishment  of  such  an  institution.  When 
children  are  not  cared  for  in  such  institutions  it  is  usually 
the  custom  for  the  community,  through  some  Children's 
Aid  Society,  to  find  good  private  homes  where  these  chil- 
dren may  be  boarded. 

Care  of  the  Aged.  —  In  almost  every  community  we  find 
homes  for  the  aged.  Many  of  these  are  by  no  means 
charities.  Such  homes  admit  old  people  who  are  able  to 
pay  a  certain  sum  of  money,  and  in  return  for  this  take 
care  of  them  and  give  them  a  good  home  until  they  die. 
Then  there  are  the  homes  which  are  supported  partly  by 
such  payments  and  partly  by  contributions  from  other 
sources.  Still  others  are  entirely  supported  by  funds  re- 
ceived from  charitable  organizations,  such  as  churches  and 
lodges.     These,  however,  usually  limit  their  aid  to  mem- 


CHARITIES  273 

bers  of  the  organization  contributing.  For  those  who  are 
unable  to  get  into  some  one  of  these  places  we  find  the  city 
or  county  poorhouse.  While  conditions  in  these  places  are 
improving,  they  are  at  their  best  but  a  makeshift.  An- 
other means  of  solving  this  problem  will  be  to  have  com- 
pulsory old  age  insurance  laws  which  will  require  that  every 
one  put  aside  something  during  the  years  in  which  he  is 
able  to  work.  Then  when  they  are  incapacitated  by  old 
age  the  state  will  pay  them  a  pension  in  addition  to  the  in- 
surance. To  this  pension  every  member  of  the  community 
will  have  contributed  through  some  form  of  taxation.  Old 
people  who  have  children  able  to  support  them  should  be 
taken  care  of  by  their  children  and  not  become  burdens  on 
the  state. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  FURTHER   STUDY  AND    DISCUSSION 

1.  Find  out  all  you  can  about  the  county  almshouse  or  poorhouse. 

2.  How  does  your  city  provide  for  its  paupers  ? 

3.  What  provision  has  been  made  by  your  community  for  the  care 
of  children  who  have  been  left  destitute  by  the  death  of  parents  ? 

4.  How  are  the  insane  cared  for  by  your  community? 

5.  How  can  the  blind  and  the  deaf  and  dumb  be  made  self-sup- 
porting ? 

6.  What  provision  is  made  by  your  school  system  for  the  care  of 
the  mentally  deficient? 

7.  Find  out  all  you  can  about  the  pensions  issued  to  veterans  of 
the  Civil  War.  What  change  has  been  made  in  this  plan  in  regard  to 
the  veterans  of  the  Great  War? 

8.  Explain  how  insurance  helps  prevent  dependency. 

9.  What  is  meant  by  a  hospital  clinic?  How  does  it  help  those 
in  need? 

10.  Stephen  Girard  left  a  large  sum  of  money  for  founding  a  school 
for  orphan  boys.  Find  out  what  you  can  about  Girard  College.  Are 
there  other  similar  institutions  for  girls? 


A  SELF-GOVERNING   COMMUNITY 

CHAPTER  XVII 
CORRECTION  AND  THE  COURTS 

About  the  middle  of  the  last  century  gold  was  discovered 
in  California.  The  news  spread  like  wildfire  all  over  the 
country  and  in  a  short  while  men  of  every  walk  of  life 
had  left  their  homes  and  started  for  the  West.  Those  who 
were  fortunate  enough  to  reach  the  mining  district  soon 
found  that  they  had  real  community  problems  on  their 
hands.  Some  who  went  to  dig  gold  made  their  money  in 
supplying  the  needs  of  the  miners  for  food  and  clothing, 
and  so  instead  of  becoming  miners  they  turned  their  atten- 
tion to  storekeeping.  In  every  such  group  there  were  cer- 
tain men  who  turned  their  attention  to  getting  rich  by  un- 
fair means.  Taking  advantage  of  the  lack  of  protection 
afforded  to  property,  they  would  break  into  the  shacks 
of  the  miners  and  steal  their  gold.  You  may  be  sure  that 
this  was  not  permitted  to  go  on  very  long,  for  the  miners 
in  order  to  protect  themselves  organized  vigilance  com- 
mittees. These  committees  did  not  bother  about  law. 
They  made  up  their  minds  that  stealing  was  going  to  stop, 
and  they  stopped  it  by  hanging  every  thief  they  caught. 
The  mining  region  was  soon  made  a  rather  uncomfortable 

place  for  a  thief. 

274 


CORRECTION  AND  THE  COURTS         275 

The  Necessity  for  Law  and  Order.  —  Our  communities 
are  so  large  that  it  is  very  necessary  for  us  to  have  definite 
understandings  as  to  what  may  and  what  may  not  be  done. 
In  fact  this  would  be  true  to  a  degree  in  even  a  very  small 
community.  Take  our  own  homes,  for  example.  We 
would  not  get  along  very  well  together  if  we  did  not  have 
a  fairly  clear  understanding  as  to  what  each  one  should  do. 
The  hours  for  meals  are  more  or  less  definitely  fixed.  If 
we  are  late,  we  either  keep  all  the  other  members  waiting 
or  else  must  go  without  our  meal.  How  long  would  we  be 
able  to  keep  school  if  there  were  no  rules  to  guide  us,  and 
teachers  and  pupils  did  just  as  they  pleased  ?  It  would 
not  be  long  before  everything  would  be  in  confusion.  Order 
is  necessary  in  every  community. 

The  working  together  of  so  many  people  as  are  found  in  a 
city,  not  to  mention  a  state  or  the  nation,  makes  necessary 
many  rules  or  laws.  The  foundation  of  all  of  our  laws 
is  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States.  Each  state  also 
has  its  own  constitution.  The  cities  have  charters  or  con- 
stitutions which  they  receive  from  the  state.  With  these  as 
a  basis,  Congress  for  the  nation,  the  Legislature  for  the 
state,  and  Councils  for  the  city  make  the  laws  which  guide 
the  people  in  their  relations  one  with  another.  These 
laws  are  like  the  oil  which  we  put  into  a  machine  to  make 
all  the  parts  work  together  smoothly.  The  good  citizen 
does  not  fear  the  law  but  obeys  it,  knowing  that  it  is 
meant  for  the  best  interests  of  all  concerned,  and  that 
really  it  is  but  an  expression  of  his  own  desires. 

Offenders  Against  the  Law.  —  Unfortunately  there  are 
those  who  do  not  so  regard  the  law  and  who  do  not  obey  it. 


276  A   SELF-GOVERNING  COMMUNITY 

They  prefer  to  do  just  as  they  please  in  certain  matters, 
and  are  unwilling  to  respect  the  rights  or  wishes  of  other 
members  of  the  group.  Just  as  in  the  illustration  at  the 
beginning  of  the  chapter  there  were  men  who  were  un- 
willing to  respect  the  rights  of  the  others,  so  in  every 
community  there  are  those  who  persist  in  doing  things 
which  are  contrary  to  the  interests  of  the  group.  Such 
people  do  not  have  the  welfare  of  the  others  at  heart. 
They  place  their  own  interests  above  the  interests  of  the 
rest.  Their  interests  are  not  in  common  with  the  group. 
To  this  extent  they  are  not  real  members  of  the  community. 
This  presents  a  very  serious  problem. 

Punishments.  —  In  olden  times,  as  now,  the  idea  of  the 
community  was  that  such  offenders  against  the  law  should 
be  punished.  But  the  punishment  took  in  many  cases  the 
form  of  revenge.  In  the  very  early  days  it  consisted  of 
inflicting  on  the  offender  the  same  punishment  as  the  crime 
which  he  had  committed  against  the  community.  It  was 
"an  eye  for  an  eye,  and  a  tooth  for  a  tooth."  In  more 
recent  times  the  punishments  were  even  more  severe. 
There  was  a  time  in  England  when  a  man  was  publicly 
hanged  if  he  stole  anything  the  value  of  which  was  more 
than  a  shilling.  All  sorts  of  cruelties  and  indignities  were 
inflicted  on  offenders.  Most  of  the  punishment  was  done 
in  public  as  a  warning  to  others  as  to  what  would  be  done 
if  they  committed  a  like  offense.  Men,  women,  and  chil- 
dren were  often  thrown  into  dark  dungeons  where  if  they 
were  left  for  any  considerable  length  of  time  they  were 
certain  to  die.     The  food  which  was  fed  to  prisoners  was 


CORRECTION  AND  THE  COURTS  277 

the  coarsest  imaginable.     Yet  in  spite  of  all  these  punish- 
ments crime  continued  to  flourish. 

Even  in  our  own  day,  many  still  have  the  idea  that 
society  must  get  even  with  the  offender.  The  older  forms 
of  torture  have  been  done  away  with,  and  capital  punish- 
ment has  almost  entirely  disappeared,  and  yet  there  are 
still  many  things  to  be  desired  in  the  manner  of  the  treat- 
ment of  prisoners.  Not  until  people  come  to  realize  that 
their  duty  toward  the  offender  is  to  make  him  over  if 
possible  into  a  self-respecting,  law-abiding  citizen,  will  we 
entirely  remedy  our  defects  in  the  treatment  of  criminals. 

Causes  of  Crime.  —  If  we  are  going  to  understand  what 
to  do  for  the  offender  against  the  law,  we  must  find  out  if 
we  can  what  the  causes  were  of  his  offense.  We  have  al- 
ready reached  the  point  where  we  understand  that  a  man 
who  is  insane  is  not  responsible  for  his  acts.  When  such 
a  man  commits  a  crime  it  cannot  be  overlooked,  but 
should  result,  when  we  are  sure  of  the  insanity,  in  placing 
the  individual  in  an  institution  for  the  insane.  Here 
he  will  be  guarded  so  that  the  chance  of  the  repetition  of 
the  crime  will  be  greatly  lessened.  Then,  too,  the  feeble- 
minded are  very  susceptible  to  suggestion.  They  become 
very  readily  the  tools  of  people  who  wish  to  have  a  crime 
committed.  Here  again  the  offender  should  be  considered 
for  permanent  placement  in  an  institution  rather  than 
commitment  to  prison. 

Some  people  become  criminals  as  the  result  of  their 
surroundings.  Children  are  often  started  in  a  life  of 
crime  by  evil  parents.  People  who  have  been  brought 
up  in  homes  where  the  parents  have  constantly  neglected 


278  A  SELF-GOVERNING  COMMUNITY 

them,  where  they  have  seen  wrong  doing  from  their  earliest 
days,  where  their  companions  have  been  evil,  where  they 
have  spent  their  time  in  gambling  and  drinking,  are  likely 
to  be  come  criminals. 

There  are  also  cases  where  laws  have  been  broken  and 
crimes  committed  by  those  who  have  not  previously  led 
vicious  lives.  Children  unwittingly  will  commit  some 
offense  for  which  they  are  arrested.  If  they  are  thrown 
in  with  others  of  a  real  criminal  type  there  is  a  grave  danger 
that  they  may  learn  evil  from  these  others  and  go  back 
to  their  homes  to  begin  criminal  lives.  Sometimes  laws  are 
broken  as  the  result  of  accident.  Sometimes  a  condition 
like  poverty  or  illness  will  drive  a  person  who  would  under 
ordinary  conditions  never  think  of  such  a  thing,  to  steal. 

It  is  easy  to  see  that  all  lawbreakers  are  not  alike  and 
that  each  case  must  be  studied  by  itself  if  we  are  to  deal 
wisely  with  the  offenders  and  use  the  best  methods  for 
bringing  back  to  good  citizenship  those  who  may  be  saved. 
Punishment  will  still  be  necessary  in  some  cases,  but  in- 
stead of  being  administered  merely  in  a  spirit  of  revenge 
it  will  be  handled  so  as  to  improve  character.  It  will 
endeavor  to  remove  the  cause  and  prevent  the  recurrence 
of  the  offense. 

SUGGESTIONS   FOR  FURTHER   STUDY  AND    DISCUSSION 

1.  What  are  some  of  the  dangers  attached  to  the  punishment  of 
offenders  against  the  law  by  means  of  vigilance  committees? 

2.  Why  should  a  suspected  offender  against  the  law  be  considered 
innocent  until  he  is  proven  guilty? 

3.  What  evil  effects  does  lynching  have  on  those  who  take  part 
in  it? 


280  A   SELF-GOVERNING   COMMUNITY 

4.  Explain  what  is  meant  by  fundamental  law;  constitution; 
statute;  ordinance. 

5.  What  relation  is  there  if  any  between  (a)  the  use  of  intoxicating 
beverages,  (b)  poverty,  (c)  crime? 

THE   COURTS  AND   THE  LAW 

The  Laws.  —  The  laws  of  the  community  are  very 
numerous.  They  run  all  the  way  from  such  matters  as 
city  ordinances  regulating  the  kind  of  receptacle  in  which 
ashes  may  be  disposed,  up  to  federal  laws  defining  treason 
against  the  nation.  The  penalties  involved  in  the  in- 
fraction of  these  laws  will  extend  from  the  payment  of  a 
small  fine  to  life  imprisonment  or  even  death.  Many  of 
the  laws,  especially  those  concerning  property  rights,  are  so 
complicated  as  to  be  capable  of  interpretation  only  by  men 
well  trained  in  law.  Most  of  us,  however,  live  our  lives 
without  running  seriously  into  conflict  with  them.  We 
may  have  neglected  to  have  the  snow  removed  from  the 
sidewalk,  but  as  soon  as  the  policeman  attracts  our  at- 
tention to  it  we  attend  to  it.  For  the  most  part,  how- 
ever, the  laws  on  the  statute  books  go  right  on  protecting 
us  without  our  being  conscious  of  their  existence.  It  is 
only  when  some  one  tries  to  defraud  us  or  take  our  prop- 
erty from  us  that  we  think  about  the  law  and  realize  that 
it  has  been  there  all  along  ready  to  protect  us  when  the 
occasion  should  demand. 

Enforcing  the  Laws  Through  the  Courts.  —  The  laws 
in  themselves  would  be  worthless,  however,  if  it  were  not 
for  the  machinery  which  the  community  has  built  up  for 
the  purpose  of  determining  just  what  the  laws  mean  and 


CORRECTION  AND  THE  COURTS         281 

then  seeing  that  they  are  enforced.  Wejiave  considered 
in  other  parts  of  this  book  how  the  police  form  the  strong 
right  arm  of  the  executive  in  seeing  that_fcIie.wishes__Qi  the 
community  as  expressed  in  the  laws  are  carried  out.  In 
addition  to  this  force  there  is  still  another  very  important 
part  of  the  government  which  aids  in  the  enforcement  of 
the  law.     We  call  this  branch  of  government  the  courts.  .^ 

We  know  that  when  any  one  has  committed  some  offense 
against  the  laws  of  the  community  and  been  detected  he  is 
made  to  answer  for  the  offense.  It  may  be  a  violation  of 
the  traffic  laws  of  the  city,  or  robbery,  or  assault  and 
battery,  failure  to  keep  a  contract,  or  any  of  a  thousand 
different  things.  In  some  cases,  as  in  that  of  a  person 
caught  stealing,  the  arrest  is  made  on  the  spot.  In  others, 
evidence  may  point  to  a  certain  person  as  the  offender  and 

a  warrant  is  issued  for  his  arrest.     Or  it  may  rwya  summons 

to  appear  in  court  for  trial.  In  any  case  the  person  is 
brought  before  the  bar  of  justice. 

A  Criminal  Case.  —  Let  us  imagine  a  case  to  illustrate 
what  happens.  A  robbery  has  been  committed  and  the 
thief  has  gotten  away.  Finger  print  marks,  however, 
together  with  other  evidence,  point  to  a  certain  person  as 
the  likely  thief.  A  warrant  is  sworn  out,  and  armed  with 
this  the  officer  of  the  law  makes  the  arrest.  The  prisoner 
is  taken  before  a  magistrate  and  given  a  hearing.  In  a 
case  of  this  kind  the  magistrate  can  do  nothing  but  hold 
the  man  for  the  grand  jury.  The  grand  jury  examines  the 
evidence  against  the  man,  and  if  it  believes  that  this  evi- 
dence is  sufficient  it  returns  a  "true  bill"  or  indictment. 


282  A   SELF-GOVERNING   COMMUNITY 

When  this  is  done  the  man  is  held  for  trial  by  court.     He 
is  kept  in  jail  or  he  may  be  let' out  under  bail. 

The  Trial.  ■ —  The  trial  is  held  before  a  jury  consisting 
of  twelve  men.  The  judge  of  the  court  presides.  The 
district  attorney  or  an  assistant  acts  as  prosecutor  for  the 
state,  for  the  offense  has  been  committed  against  the  state. 
The  accused  has  his  own  attorney,  or  one  appointed  by  the 
judge,  to  defend  him.  After  the  evidence  has  been  sub- 
mitted, and  the  arguments  of  the  opposing  attorneys  have 
been  heard,  the  judge  explains  the  law  involved  in  the 
case  to  the  jury  and  tells  them  what  they  should  consider 
in  reaching  their  verdict.  The  jury  then  retires,  discusses 
the  case,  and  votes.  To  convict  the  vote  must  be  unani- 
mous. If  it  finds  that  the  prisoner  is  guilty,  it  so  reports 
and  the  judge  imposes  sentence.  If  it  finds  that  the 
prisoner  is  not  guilty,  the  case  against  the  prisoner  is 
dropped.  In  case  of  error  made  in  the  trial,  or  additional 
evidence  discovered  which  could  not  be  given  at  the  first 
trial,  the  attorney  for  the  prisoner  who  has  been  convicted 
may  appeal  the  case  to  the  next  higher  court.  If  the 
higher  court  refuses  the  appeal,  the  prisoner  must  serve 
his  sentence ;  if  it  grants  the  appeal,  the  case  comes  up  for 
a  new  trial. 

A  Civil  Case.  —  All  of  the  cases  which  come  before  a 
court  are  by  no  means  criminal.  Many  of  these  grow  out 
of  the  business  relations  between  members  of  the  com- 
munity. For  example,  one  man  sues  another  for  money 
which  he  claims  is  due  in  payment  for  certain  services  ren- 
dered.    He  has  tried  in  other  ways  to  collect  the  money, 


CORRECTION  AND  THE  COURTS         283 

but  has  been  unable  to  get  it.  He  therefore  comes  to  the 
court  for  justice.  The  proceedings  are  spoken  of  as  a  law- 
suit and  are  conducted  in  civil  courts.  The  man  who  is 
being  sued  is  notified.  If  he  acknowledges  his  indebtedness, 
judgment  for  the  amount  owed  is  entered  at  once  against  him. 
If  he  denies  it,  the  case  is  placed  on  the  "  docket,"  or  list  of 
cases  to  be  called  for  trial  by  the  court.  The  trial  is 
usually  conducted  before  a  jury  in  much  the  same  manner 
as  that  described  in  the  criminal  case.  After  the  verdict 
has  been  returned  by  the  jury,  the  defeated  party  may  ask 
for  another  trial.  This  is  either  granted  or  refused  by  the 
judge  who  tried  the  case.  It  is  possible,  however,  to  appeal 
the  case  to  a  higher  court. 

SUGGESTIONS   FOR  FURTHER   STUDY  AND    DISCUSSION 

1.  Why  is  a  person  who  deliberately  breaks  the  laws  of  his  commu- 
nity not  a  good  citizen? 

2.  What  are  some  of  the  minor  offenses  which  the  people  of  your 
community  commit  against  the  law? 

3.  How  can  the  school  help  prevent  the  development  of  criminals  ? 

4.  What  is  meant  by  "  grand  jury,"  "  petit  jury,"  "  bondsman," 
"  bail,"  "  talesman  "  ? 

5.  After  you  have  become  familiar  with  the  general  plan  of  procedure 
in  your  local  courts,  plan  a  mock  trial. 

ORGANIZATION   OF  THE   COURTS 

The  Municipal  Court.  —  The  unit  forme  organization 
of  courts  in  the  istatejis  the  county, — In  the  large  cities 
a  special  system  of  courts  is  sometimes  organized  to  re- 
lieve the  county  courts  of  the  burden  of  work  which  falls 
upon  them  and  at  the  same  time  to  enable  doing  away 
as  far  as  possible  with  the  magistrates  and  police  courts. 


284  A   SELF-GOVERNING   COMMUNITY 

These  latter  are  so  often  mixed  up  with  the  local  political 
situation  as  to  make  the  justice  rendered  sometimes  ques- 
tionable. This  system  provides  for  the  Municipal  Court. 
Here  we  find  a  juvenile  court,  a  court  of  domestic  rela- 
tions, tjiemisdemeanants  court,  as  well  as  the  teivil ,  and 
criminal  courts.  JThe  juvenile  court  looks  after  allcaS 
relating  to  children.  The  misdemeanants  court  takes 
care  of  the  older  boys  and  girls,  those  over  sixteen,  who 
are  too  young  to  be  taken  before  the  regular  criminal 
court,  but  who  need  special  care.  The  domestic  relations 
court  is  concerned  with  such  matters  as  support  of  wife 
and  children.  The  criminal  courtjiandles  the  minor  of- 
fenses against  the  law,  such  as  fighting,  violation  of  the 
traffic  rules,  and  so  forth.  The  civil  court  handles  suits 
for  damages  against  the  street  railroads,  and  other  smaller 
claims. 

Juvenile  Courts.  —  Formerly  when  children  broke  the 
law  they  were  arrested  and  treated  in  just  the  same  manner 
as  if  they  had  been  adults.  They  were  carried  to  the  sta- 
tion house  in  the  patrol  wagon,  locked  in  the  cell,  sent  to 
the  central  court  in  the  wagon,  herded  with  the  adults, 
and  finally  tried  before  a  court  just  as  if  they  had  been  old 
offenders.  Instead  of  this  we  often  find  now  a  court  which 
deals  with  just  boys  and  girls.  There  is  no  jury.  The  judge 
is  usually  a  man  who  is  interested  in  boys  and  girls  and 
anxious  to  help  them  make  good.  When  a  boy  or  girl 
has  been  arrested  for  some  offense  he  or  she  is  brought  be- 
fore this  court.  Careful  investigation  has  been  made  of 
the  home  life  of  the  child,  and  usually  the  child  has  been 


CORRECTION  AND  THE   COURTS  285 

examined  to  see  if  there  are  any  conditions,  either  physical 
or  mental,  which  may  have  been  responsible  for  the  trouble. 
With  all  these  facts  before  him  the  judge  goes  over  the  case 
very  carefully.  Often  instead  of  sending  the  child  to  a 
reform  school,  the  judge  will  send  it  home  under  the 
care  of  a  probation  officer.  While  on  probation  the  child 
reports  every  week  to  the  probation  officer.  The  officer 
also  continues  to  visit  the  home  and  to  do  everything  to 
help  the  child  keep  the  promise  made  to  the  judge.  Of 
course  if  the  child  should  fail  to  do  this  it  is  taken  back  to 
court  and  if  necessary  sent  to  some  institution  to  be  studied 
more  carefully. 

State  Courts.  —  Above  the  county  courts  we  find  the 
system  of  state  courts.  Whenever  there  is  a  dispute 
concerning  the  meaning  of  the  law  in  its  application  to  a 
special  case,  or  a  question  as  to  whether  or  not  a  law  is 
constitutional,  it  is  necessary  to  have  some  court  to  which 
appeal  may  be  made.  The  Supreme  Court  of  the  state  is 
the  court  of  final  appealifrall  matter  concerning  state  law. 
Because  of  the  nmaber  of  cases  which  are  appealed  from 
the  county  .cou-rts  we  usually  find  a  system  of  intermediate 
or  Sirrjenoj-TJojiris  through  which  cases  are  required  to  pass 
before  they  finally  reach  the  Supreme  Court.  In  this  way 
many  cases  are  settled  without  actually  reaching  the 
Supreme  Court. 

Federal  Courts.  —  The  national  community  has  its 
systems  of  courts  just  as  the  states  have  theirs.  The  laws 
which  are  passed  by  Congress,  the  treaties  which  are  made 


286  A   SELF-GOVERNING   COMMUNITY 

under  the  Constitution,  and  the  Constitution  itself,  are 
all  interpreted,  and  their  enforcement  aided  by  the  federal 
courts.  Then,  too,  there  are  cases  which  arise  between 
the  states,  or  between  citizens  of  different  states,  where 
state  courts  might  be  prejudiced  one  way  or  the  other. 
These  and  other  cases  which  do  not  come  under  the  juris- 
dictions of  the  state  courts  are  handled  by  the  federal 
courts. 

District  Courts.  —  The  lowest  of  the  federal  courts  are 
known  as  the  federal  District  Courts.  There  is  at  least 
one  of  these  in  each  state,  while  in  the  larger  states  there 
are  more,  as  in  the  case  of  New  York,  where  there  are  four. 
Practically  all  cases  which  are  to  be  tried  in  the  federal 
courts  are  begun  here.  The  cases  are  tried  by  judge  and 
jury  in  much  the  same  manner  as  the  cases  before  the 
county  courts.  In  place  of  the  policeman  to  make  arrests, 
however,  we  find  the  United  States  marshal.  He  is  re- 
sponsible for  the  arrest  and  care  of  prisoners  until  they 
have  been  turned  over  to  the  federal  prisons.  In  each 
district  there  are  commissioners  who  perform  services  some- 
what like  the  magistrates  and  grand  juries.  There  is 
also  a  United  States  district  attorney  who  is  responsible 
for  the  prosecution  and  represents  the  government  in  the 
trial. 

Circuit  Courts  of  Appeals.  —  Above  the  District  Courts 
we  find  the  Circuit  Courts  of  Appeals.  There  are  nine 
such  courts  in  the  United  States.  The  country  is  divided 
into  districts   equal  in  number  to  the  number  of  courts. 


CORRECTION  AND  THE  COURTS         287 

There  are  from  two  to  five  judges  in  each  circuit.  Since 
the  district  is  quite  large,  covering  three  or  more  states, 
the  judges  have  certain  places  to  which  they  go  in  their 
districts  for  the  purpose  of  conducting  court.  They  hear 
without  jury  all  appeals  from  the  District  Courts.  Unless 
some  question  involving  a  decision  of  the  Supreme  Court 
is  raised,  they  pass  a  final  decision  in  the  case. 

Supreme  Court.  —  There  is  over  all  one  Supreme  Court. 
It  is  the  United  States  Supreme  Court.  It  consists  of  one 
chief  justice  and  eight  associate  justices.  It  meets  in  the 
Capitol  at  Washington  from  October  till  June.  Its  mem- 
bers are  appointed  by  the  President  with  the  advice  and 
consent  of  the  Senate.  They  hold  office  for  life,  which 
places  them  immediately  beyond  the  reach  of  political 
influence.  They  have  probably  the  greatest  authority 
of  any  judges  in  the  world.  Any  law  which  they  declare  to 
be  unconstitutional  need  not  be  obeyed  no  matter  how 
much  the  President  and  Congress  may  desire  to  see  it  en- 
forced. This  court  is  the  highest  court,  beyond  which 
there  is  no  possibility  of  appeal. 

SUGGESTIONS   FOR  FURTHER   STUDY  AND    DISCUSSION 

1.  Find  out  all  you  can  about  the  work  of  Judge  Ben  Lindsey  of 
Denver.  What  was  the  secret  of  his  great  success  as  a  judge  for  boys 
and  girls? 

2.  By  reference  to  the  legal  news  in  your  daily  paper  find  the  names 
of  the  various  courts  which  are  sitting  in  your  city.  What  in  general 
is  the  work  of  each? 

3.  What  is  the  general  plan  of  your  state  courts? 

4.  Who  is  Chief  Justice  of  the  United  States  Supreme  Court?  Find 
by  reference  to  your  history  some  famous  decisions  of  the  court. 


288  A   SELF-GOVERNING   COMMUNITY 

CARRYING   OUT  THE   ORDERS   OF  THE   COURTS 

The  Verdict.  —  After  a  case  has  been  tried  and  the  vote 
of  jury  or  judges  has  been  taken,  a  verdict  is  rendered. 
In  cases  involving  a  matter  of  interpretation  of  law  as, 
for  example,  in  a  case  before  the  Supreme  Court,  a  de- 
cision is  rendered  which  is  really  an  explanation  of  the 
law.  In  a  case  involving  the  conviction  of  an  individual 
or  group  of  individuals  the  verdict  is  followed  by  the  pass- 
ing of  sentence.  This  may  be  anywhere  from  a  small  fine 
to  one  involving  millions  of  dollars,  or  from  a  sentence  of  a 
short  term  of  imprisonment  to  one  of  death.  It  is  the  duty 
of  the  judge  to  impose  the  sentence. 

Indeterminate  Sentence.  — In  many  cases  we  will  find 
the  judges,  where  the  law  permits,  refusing  to  set  a  definite 
time  limit  on  the  period  of  imprisonment.  Such  a  sen- 
tence was  well  enough  when  the  object  was  simply  to 
make  the  offender  pay  for  his  wrong-doing  by  depriving 
him  of  his  liberty.  In  other  words  it  was  satisfactory 
as  a  punishment,  but  did  not  take  into  account  the  fact 
that  the  imprisonment  offered  the  community  a  chance  to 
help  the  prisoner.  The  indeterminate  sentence  means 
that  there  is  no  definite  time  set  for  the  release  of  the  pris- 
oner. There  is  provision  made  that  he  shall  not  be  dis- 
charged before  a  certain  time,  this  varying  with  good  be- 
havior. He  need  not,  however,  be  discharged  at  the  end 
of  this  time  unless  in  the  judgment  of  the  prison  authori- 
ties he  has  made  such  discharge  wise.  The  length  of  time, 
then,  that  the  offender  will  spend  in  prison  under  a  sentence 
of  this  kind  is  largely •  determined  by  himself.     If  he  takes 


CORRECTION  AND  THE   COURTS  289 

advantage  of  the  opportunities  to  improve  himself  so  that 
the  authorities  believe  he  is  ready  for  his  freedom,  he  is 
dismissed. 

Parole.  —  Further  hold  is  kept  on  the  man  by  the  sys- 
tem of  parole.  He  is  required  when  released  from  an  in- 
determinate sentence  to  give  his  word  that  he  will  do 
what  is  right  if  he  is  released.  If  he  should  break  his 
promise  he  may  be  brought  back  under  the  terms  of  his 
indeterminate  sentence  to  remain  in  prison  until  he  can 
give  still  further  evidence  that  he  means  to  behave. 

Suspended  Sentence.  —  In  the  case  of  a  first  offender, 
additional  chance  is  given  by  means  of  the  suspended 
sentence.  After  the  trial  and  conviction,  sentence  is 
passed.  In  view  of  the  fact  that  it  is  a  first  offense,  and 
possibly  was  committed  under  some  conditions  for  which 
the  offender  was  not  wholly  to  blame,  the  sentence  is 
temporarily  suspended.  The  man  is  permitted  to  go  back 
to  his  regular  employment  upon  promise  that  he  will  re- 
form. In  case  of  failure  to  make  good  the  sentence  is 
then  carried  out. 

Institutions  for  the  Criminal.  —  Since  there  are  some 
members  of  the  community  who  are  unable  to  live  with 
their  fellows  and  respect  their  property  and  other  rights, 
it  is  necessary  that  some  place  be  provided  where  they 
may  be  kept  so  that  they  will  be  unable  to  injure  their 
fellows.  Such  people  compose  the  criminal  class  about 
whom  we  have  been  reading.  The  places  which  have 
been  established  for  their  confinement  and  care  are  gen- 


290  A   SELF-GOVERNING   COMMUNITY 

erally  spoken  of  under  the  name  of  prisons.  Formerly 
it  was  the  custom  to  treat  every  prisoner  the  same.  Men 
and  women,  boys  and  girls,  hardened  criminals  and  those 
who  had  committed  a  first  offense  were  thrown  into  cells 
in  a  common  prison.  Often  too,  as  we  have  seen,  no  effort 
was  made  to  provide  for  those  whose  crime  was  the  result 
of  physical  conditions  over  which  they  had  no  control. 
Insane  and  feeble-minded  were  treated  as  if  they  were  in 
full  possession  of  all  their  mental  powers.  Then,  too, 
the  prisons  were  constructed  with  the  one  idea  of  confine- 
ment in  mind.  Often  they  were  dark,  damp,  and  filthy 
places,  where  disease  was  bred  and  spread  from  one  to 
the  other.  Again,  the  indiscriminate  imprisoning  made 
for  the  education  in  crime  and  vice  of  those  who  might 
otherwise  have  gone  straight.  Usually  the  prisoner  left 
the  prison  with  a  hatred  of  the  community  which  had  im- 
prisoned him,  and  a  much  better  knowledge  of  how  to 
commit  crime  than  he  had  when  he  entered. 

In  recent  years  much  has  been  done  to  improve  the  con- 
ditions in  our  prisons.  It  has  been  recognized  that  chil- 
dren do  not  require  the  same  kind  of  treatment  as  that 
given  to  adults,  and  so  there  has  been  developed  an  entirely 
different  method  of  handling  juvenile  offenders.  Just 
as  in  the  courts  the  method  of  handling  the  boy  or  girl 
has  changed  to  dealing  with  them  in  separate  courts  and 
by  trained  and  sympathetic  men  and  women,  so  instead 
of  imprisoning  them  in  regular  prisons  other  methods  are 
used.  In  the  place  of  the  prison  has  come  the  parental 
school  or  reform  school.  This  is  usually  conducted  on  the 
cottage  plan,  the  boys  and  girls  being  given  real  home  life 


CORRECTION  AND  THE   COURTS  291 

and  in  the  open  country,  where  the  interests  of  the  farm 
make  their  appeal.  Many  boys  and  girls  have  gotten  in 
just  such  places  their  first  idea  of  what  community  life 
really  means  and  learned  to  respect  the  property  rights  of 
others. 

The  prisons  where  the  adult  offenders  are  confined  have 
changed  too.  The  modern  prison  is  a  clean,  well-lighted, 
well-ventilated  place.  Every  effort  is  made  to  make  the 
life  of  the  prisoners  such  that  they  will  become  self-re- 
specting. In  place  of  the  older  striped  uniforms  and  the 
lock-step  has  come  the  wearing  of  everyday  clothes  and 
considerable  freedom  of  movement.  Of  course  there  are 
always  those  who  are  unable  to  profit  by  such  methods 
and  who  so  misbehave  that  the  close  confinement  in  cells 
is  necessary.  Usually,  however,  the  prisoners  take  well 
to  the  forms  of  employment  which  are  offered,  and  the 
more  so  because  they  are  able  to  earn  money  with  which 
to  purchase  some  of  the  things  which  they  need,  or  save 
it  until  they  are  discharged,  and  have  some  money  with 
which  to  start  a  new  life.  Provided  with  respectable 
clothes  and  with  possibly  some  money  which  he  has 
earned,  the  discharged  prisoner  has  no  longer  the  earmarks 
of  the  jailbird  and  is  often  able  to  make  good  his  promise 
to  do  better.  There  are  a  number  of  private  organizations 
which  make  it  a  business  to  help  the  discharged  prisoner 
obtain  employment  and  set  him  in  the  way  of  an  'honest, 
useful  life. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY  AND    DISCUSSION 

1.  What  are  some  of  the  advantages  of  the  indeterminate  over  the 
definite  sentence? 


292  A   SELF-GOVERNING   COMMUNITY 

2.  What  are  the  institutions  for  offenders  against  the  law  in  your 
community?  Is  their  object  punishment  of  the  offender,  or  reforma- 
tion? 

3.  What  institutions  are  there  for  boy  and  girl  offenders?  How 
do  they  go  about  helping  those  who  are  committed  to  their  care  ? 

4.  How  will  the  teaching  of  a  man  a  trade  help  make  him  a  better 
citizen  when  he  is  released? 

5.  Are  there  any  organizations  in  your  community  which  concern 
themselves  with  helping  the  discharged  prisoner  ? 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
HOW    OUR   LAWS    ARE    MADE 

We  all  know  how  impossible  it  is  to  play  even  the  sim- 
plest kind  of  game  unless  we  know  and  follow  the  rules. 
In  a  complicated  game  such  as  baseball,  there  are  very 
many  rules.  These  rules  determine  just  how  the  game 
shall  be  played  by  all  professional  teams.  The  profes- 
sional players  are  men  who  make  the  playing  of  baseball 
their  business.  The  big  professional  teams  represent 
the  various  cities ;  and  because  of  the  intense  rivalry  be- 
tween the  cities  over  their  teams,  and  the  great  interest 
which  is  taken  in  playing  the  game,  the  rules  have  been 
very  definitely  formulated  so  that  any  case  of  dispute 
may  be  quickly  and  satisfactorily  settled  by  reference  to 
the  book  of  rules.  These  rules  make  possible  the  playing 
of  the  game,  since  they  let  each  player  know  just  what  may 
or  may  not  be  done  at  any  point  in  the  game.  When 
interpreted  by  a  good  umpire,  they  enable  the  game  to  run 
very  smoothly. 

Just  as  rules  are  necessary  in  playing  a  game,  so  in  the 
game  of  life  it  is  necessary  that  we  have  very  definite  rules 
to  guide  us.  The  people  of  the  community  are  seeking 
for  many  things.  They  desire  to  have  health,  to  protect 
their  lives  and  property,  to  enjoy  the  benefits  of  educa- 
tion and  recreation,  to  live  amid  pleasant  surroundings, 

293 


294  A   SELF-GOVERNING   COMMUNITY 

and  to  have  the  facilities  for  acquiring  possession  of  wealth 
which  will  make  for  their  personal  comfort  and  happi- 
ness. In  their  efforts  to  secure  these  things,  each  in- 
dividual comes  into  contact  with  many  other  members 
of  the  community,.  Since  each  one  is  desirous  of  attain- 
ing the  same  good,  there  would  be  grave  danger  of  dis- 
turbance unless  the  rules  regulating  such  relationship  were 
very  carefully  defined.  Then,  too,  each  member  is  not 
merely  working  for  his  own  personal  welfare,  but  for  that 
of  the  entire  group.  This  means  that  there  must  be  team 
work  on  the  part  of  the  various  members  of  the  commu- 
nity. They  are  not  working  at  cross  purposes,  but  to 
attain  the  same  thing,  and  the  progress  of  the  group  means 
the  success  of  the  individual  just  as  the  gain  of  the  in- 
dividual if  made  rightly  may  mean  the  welfare  of  the 
group.  So  you  see  this  is  a  very  serious  and  somewhat 
complicated  game  which  we  are  playing.  It  is  far  more 
complicated  than  baseball,  and  therefore  definite  under- 
standable rules  are  all  the  more  necessary. 

What  Laws  Are.  —  Laws  are  the  result  of  the  experi- 
ence of  the  community.  We  have  been  making  constant 
reference  to  the  various  laws  which  exist  in  the  community, 
to  aid  in  attaining  the  desires  of  the  people.  These  laws 
as  they  are  to-day  have  not  always  existed,  although 
some  of  them  are  very  old.  Nor  were  they  made  all  at 
one  time.  As  people  have  lived  together  year  after  year 
in  community  life,  they  have  come  face  to  face  with  many 
problems.  In  their  effort  to  solve  these  problems  they 
have  found  that  certain  action  has  usually  proved  to  pro- 


HOW  OUR  LAWS  ARE  MADE  295 

duce  the  best  results.  For  example,  at  one  time  the 
stronger  always  took  from  the  weaker  anything  which  he 
desired.  But  when  men  began  to  live  together  in  tribal 
life,  it  was  found  that  such  acts  made  for  trouble  in  the 
group  and  tended  to  break  up  the  good  spirit  which  was 
necessary  if  the  members  of  the  tribe  were  to  live  at  peace 
together.  So  there  gradually  came  about  a  feeling  that 
stealing  was  contrary  to  the  interest  of  the  group.  At 
first  this  was  just  an  attitude  of  mind  which  led  the  group 
to  punish  the  offender.  Later  it  became  embodied  in 
their  laws,  or  rules  of  action.  So  the  laws  which  we  have 
to-day  in  our  communities  and  those  which  are  being 
passed  from  time  to  time  have  grown  out  of  the  experience 
of  the  community. 

MAKING  THE  LAWS 

If  your  class  in  school  has  been  organized,  or  if  you 
belong  to  some  society  or  other  organization  outside  the 
school,  you  will  be  familiar  with  the  manner  in  which 
the  business  is  transacted.  Let  us  imagine  that  the  mem- 
bers of  our  class  would  like  to  make  a  gift  of  a  picture 
to  the  school.  We  have  probably  talked  the  matter  over, 
and  for  the  most  part  agree  that  it  would  be  a  splen- 
did thing  to  do.  At  a  class  meeting  one  of  the  members 
rises  and  makes  a  motion  that  a  certain  sum  of  money 
be  taken  from  the  treasury  for  the  purpose  of  purchas- 
ing a  picture  for  presentation  to  the  school.  Another 
member  of  the  class  who  is  also  in  favor  of  making  the  gift 
seconds  the  motion.  The  class  president  then  puts  the 
matter   before   the    class.     If   there  are   any   who   desire 


296  A   SELF-GOVERNING   COMMUNITY 

to  speak  in  favor  or  against  the  motion  they  rise  at  this 
time  and  when  recognized  by  the  president  give  their 
reason  why  they  are  in  favor  or  opposed  to  the  proposi- 
tion. When  all  who  care  to  speak  have  been  heard,  the 
president  calls  for  the  vote.  This  is  done  by  asking 
all  those  who  favor  the  motion  to  say  "  aye  "  or  to  raise 
their  right  hands.  If  it  is  clear  a  majority  has  voted  in 
favor  of  the  motion,  no  counting  is  done,  but  if  there  is 
doubt  the  vote  is  counted  and  the  president  announces  that 
the  motion  has  passed  or  failed  to  pass  as  the  case  may 
be.  In  this  manner  a  law,  or  as  we  should  call  it  in  this 
case  a  resolution,  expressing  what  the  members  of  the  class 
want  done  in  regard  to  this  matter,  is  passed.  This  is  the 
simplest  form  of  lawmaking. 

Lawmaking  by  All  the  Community.  —  We  have  just 
seen  an  illustration  of  how  an  entire  community  may  make 
its  own  laws.  This  method  was  used  in  the  old  town 
meeting  in  New  England  in  the  colonial  days.  Here,  of 
course,  the  laws  which  were  being  made  concerned  all  the 
people  of  the  township.  At  stated  times  all  the  voters  of 
the  township  met  in  the  town  hall.  Under  the  direction 
of  a  chairman  whom  they  would  select,  they  would  make 
proposals  for  various  laws  and  acts  which  they  believed 
were  for  the  best  interests  of  the  community.  The  manner 
of  passing  these  laws  was  much  like  that  which  we  use  in 
our  class  meetings.  Once  a  law  had  been  passed  it  was 
the  duty  of  the  town  officers  to  see  that  it  was  carried  out. 
This  direct  making  of  the  laws  by  all  the  people  is  the 
purest  form  of  a  democracy. 


HOW  OUR  LAWS  ARE   MADE  297 

Lawmaking  by  Representatives.  —  In  our  large  com- 
munities to-day,  however,  such  a  method  of  making  laws 
would  be  out  of  the  question.  Even  towns  where  there 
were  but  a  few  thousand  voters  would  need  a  very  large 
auditorium  in  which  to  hold  their  meetings.  Then,  too, 
because  of  the  great  number  of  people  and  the  differences 
of  opinion  which  would  exist,  the  passing  of  the  simplest 
laws  would  be  almost  impossible.  We  sometimes  see 
great  mass  meetings  pass  resolutions,  but  in  this  case 
the  purpose  for  which  the  meeting  was  called  is  known  to 
all,  those  who  attend  are  usually  the  ones  in  sympathy 
with  the  movement,  the  meeting  is  usually  very  formal, 
with  no  opportunity  for  any  to  speak  except  the  adver- 
tised speakers.  In  large  communities  such  as  we  have  in 
our  towns  and  cities,  to  say  nothing  of  our  state  and  na- 
tional communities,  some  other  scheme  must  be  resorted  to. 

The  form  of  government  which  we  have  in  the  United 
States  is  sometimes  called  a  representative  democracy. 
Instead  of  having  all  the  people  come  together  to  make 
the  laws,  we  select  certain  individuals  and  give  them  the 
authority  to  act  for  us.  For  instance,  if  our  entire  school 
was  anxious  to  decide  on  a  certain  matter,  it  might  be  im- 
possible for  all  the  pupils  to  come  together  and  discuss 
and  finally  vote  on  the  proposition.  If,  however,  we  were 
to  decide  in  each  class  just  what  the  class  desired  to  have 
done,  and  then  were  to  select  one  or  two  of  our  number 
who  would  meet  with  other  like  committees  selected  and 
instructed  by  the  other  classes  and  there  vote  as  to  what 
the  pupils  of  the  entire  school  desired,  we  would  have  an 
illustration  of  representative  voting.     It  is  in  this  manner 


298  A   SELF-GOVERNING   COMMUNITY 

that  our  large  communities,  city,  state,  and  nation,  make 
the  laws  by  which  all  the  people  are  governed. 

The  Representative.  —  The  one  who  is  selected  to  repre- 
sent the  rest  of  the  citizens  in  the  making  of  the  laws  is 
called  the  representative.  This  term  is  not  always  used, 
sometimes  names  such  as  aldermen,  councilmen,  and  so 
forth  are  given.  We  shall  see  in  a  later  chapter  that  in 
deciding  the  policy  which  the  community  shall  follow, 
different  sides  are  taken  on  various  questions,  the  people 
holding  similar  views  on  important  questions  forming  po- 
litical parties.  Of  course  the  side  which  has  the  greatest 
following  will  be  able  to  elect  their  own  representative, 
but  a  good  representative  when  he  is  elected  realizes  that 
he  does  not  represent  his  party,  but  all  the  people  of  the 
community.  The  fact  that  he  has  been  selected  indicates 
that  a  majority  of  the  people  are  in  favor  of  the  views 
which  are  held  by  the  party  which  he  represents.  Since  he 
is  representing  the  people  he  will  favor  so  far  as  is  con- 
sistent with  the  welfare  of  the  group  such  laws  as  best 
represent  the  wishes  of  the  people  who  have  selected  him. 
To  be  a  representative  of  the  people  is  to  hold  a  position 
of  great  trust.  It  is  not  always  profitable  for  a  man  to 
sacrifice  his  own  personal  interests  to  represent  his  com- 
munity, but  if  he  is  a  good  citizen,  his  reward  comes  from 
the  honor  which  the  position  confers  on  him,  and  the  knowl- 
edge that  he  is  serving  his  city,  state,  or  nation. 

Lawmaking  in  the  City.  —  A  most  interesting  way  of 
finding  out  how  the  laws  are  made  in  our  own  community 
is  to  pay  a  visit  to  the  lawmaking  body  while  it  is  in  ses- 


HOW  OUR  LAWS  ARE  MADE  299 

sion.  There  is  so  much  going  on,  however,  that  unless 
we  had  some  idea  beforehand  of  what  they  were  about, 
we  would  only  be  more  confused  than  ever  as  to  how  the 
laws  were  made.  In  some  of  our  cities  we  find  two  bodies 
of  men  who  make  the  laws.  In  other  places  we  find  but 
one.  Such  lawmaking  groups  are  called  legislative  bodies. 
Where  there  are  two  bodies,  such  as  we  shall  see  later  in 
the  national  congress,  they  consist  usually  of  a  smaller 
body,  called  the  select  council  or  the  aldermen,  and  a  larger 
body,  called  the  common  council.  Sometimes  there  is 
but  one  body,  which  is  then  usually  spoken  of  as  the  coun- 
cil. Let  us  consider  the  manner  in  which  a  law  is  made 
in  a  city  where  there  are  two  legislative  bodies. 

The  councilmen  in  each  body  have  been  selected  so  as 
to  represent  the  people  of  the  various  sections  of  the  city. 
The  members  of  the  smaller  body  usually  represent  a 
wider  area  or  a  longer  district  than  those  in  the  more  nu- 
merous body.  In  both  parties  they  have  been  selected  by 
the  voters  in  their  various  districts  in  a  manner  which  is 
prescribed  by  the  charter  which  the  state  legislature  has 
made  for  the  city.  We  find  that  each  body  has  a  chair- 
man, president,  or  presiding  officer,  who  directs  the  pro- 
cedure and  decides  questions  of  order.  Let  us  follow 
briefly  the  passage  of  a  bill  where  there  are  two  legislative 
bodies,  or  councils,  or  houses,  whatever  they  may  be  called. 

The  business  men's  association  of  a  certain  section  of 
the  city  have  decided  that  a  certain  street  in  their  neigh- 
borhood should  be  paved  with  wooden  blocks.  After 
discussing  the  matter  at  one  of  their  business  meetings, 
they  begin  a  campaign  to  get  the  people  along  this  street 


300  A   SELF-GOVERNING   COMMUNITY 

interested  in  the  matter.  Then  a  committee  of  business 
men  call  upon  the  councilman  from  that  district  and  urge 
him  to  take  up  the  matter.  He  is  probably  by  this  time 
familiar  with  the  demand  which  has  come  about  as  the  result 
of  the  advertising  campaign  of  the  association.  He  agrees 
to  sponsor  the  bill  before  the  common  or  lower  council.  At 
a  meeting  of  the  council  he  rises  at  his  desk,  and  reads  the 
bill  providing  for  this  work.  The  president  of  the  body  refers 
the  bill,  a  copy  of  which  he  has  turned  over  to  the  clerk, 
to  the  committee  on  Highways.  After  consideration  this 
committee  reports  the  bill  back  to  the  council  with  their 
recommendation,  let  us  say,  that  it  be  passed.  In  the 
meantime  the  bill  has  been  printed  and  each  member  has 
been  supplied  with  a  copy  of  it.  The  bill  now  comes  up 
for  its  "  second  reading."  This  time  the  bill  is  read  para- 
graph by  paragraph,  and  members  of  the  body  have  the  op- 
portunity to  speak  for  or  against  it.  After  this  has  taken 
place  the  bill  comes  up  for  "  third  reading."  This  time 
the  title  only  is  read.  The  roll  is  then  called  and  the  mem- 
bers vote  for  or  against  the  bill.  As  soon  as  the  vote  is 
taken,  the  clerk  announces  the  result.  If  a  majority  of  the 
members  voting,  that  is  at  least  one  more  than  half,  have 
voted  for  it,  it  has  passed.  If  it  does  not  secure  this  num- 
ber of  votes,  it  has  failed.  If  the  bill  has  passed,  it  is  then 
sent  to  the  other  branch  of  councils,  where  it  goes  through 
about  the  same  procedure.  If  it  secures  a  majority  vote 
in  this  branch,  it  is  sent  to  the  mayor.  If  the  mayor  ap- 
proves the  bill,  he  signs  it  and  it  immediately  becomes  a 
law.  If  he  disapproves,  he  returns  it  to  the  branch  of 
councils  in  which  it  originated  together  with  his  reasons 


HOW  OUR  LAWS  ARE  MADE  30 1 

for  refusing  to  sign.  This  is  called  a  veto.  If  the  bill  is 
to  become  a  law  over  the  mayor's  veto,  it  must  be  passed 
again  in  both  branches  by  a  certain  vote,  for  example, 
three-fifths,  or  two-thirds,  according  to  the  law  of  the  city. 

Committees.  —  There  are  so  many  bills  which  come  up 
before  the  city  councils  that  it  would  be  very  difficult,  if 
not  impossible,  for  any  member  to  make  a  study  of  all  of 
them  so  that  he  could  vote  wisely.  In  order  that  each  bill 
may  receive  careful  study  we  find  that  the  council  is  di- 
vided into  a  number  of  committees.  To  each  one  of  these 
committees  is  assigned  a  certain  class  of  bills.  The  com- 
mittee makes  a  study  of  the  bills  which  are  referred  to  it, 
hears  evidence  for  or  against  the  bills,  and  when  ready 
submits  to  the  council  its  recommendation  as  to  what 
should  be  done. 

Members  of  councils  in  many  places  are  not  paid  for 
their  services.  This  means  that  they  must  also  be  engaged 
in  some  other  line  of  business.  As  a  matter  of  fact  many 
councilmen  are  employed  by  the  city  or  county  to  fill 
rather  important  positions  in  the  city  government.  This 
dual  office  holding  as  it  is  called  is  unwise,  because  it  is 
likely  to  influence  the  councilman  in  his  action  on  bills 
referring  to  the  department  of  government  in  which  he  is 
employed.  To  overcome  this  we  find  in  some  places  a 
single  legislative  body  composed  of  a  comparatively  small 
number  of  men  who  are  paid  for  their  services. 

Commission  Manager.  —  In  some  of  the  smaller  cities 
a  new  form  of  government  is  being  worked  out.  Instead 
of  the  councils  we  find  a  small  body,  usually  about  five  in 


302  A   SELF-GOVERNING  COMMUNITY 

number,  elected  by  the  people.  These  are  called  com- 
missioners. In  this  form  of  government,  which  is  known 
simply  as  commission  government,  these  commissioners 
made  the  laws  and  in  addition  each  commissioner  served  as 
the  head  of  one  of  the  administrative  departments.  Out 
of  this  has  grown  the  commission  manager  form  of  gov- 
ernment, in  which  the  commission  employ  an  expert  in 
city  management  to  see  that  their  plans  for  the  city  are 
carried  out.  One  of  the  advantages  of  this  form  of 
city  government  is  that  responsibility  for  failures  is  easily 
placed,  and  as  a  result  much  better  service  is  usually  re- 
ceived. 

Lawmaking  in  the  State.  —  The  legislative  or  law- 
making body  of  the  state  consists  of  two  houses,  just  as  we 
found  two  council  bodies  in  some  of  the  cities.  Usually 
the  official  title  of  the  state  legislature  is  the  General  As- 
sembly. The  upper  house  is  called  the  Senate  and  is  like 
the  Select  Councils.  The  lower  house  is  usually  called  the 
House  of  Representatives,  although  in  some  states  it  is 
referred  to  as  the  Assembly.  The  general  plan  of  pro- 
cedure in  passing  a  bill  is  much  like  that  which  we  described 
for  the  city  council.  There  are  the  three  readings,  the 
action  of  the  committees,  and  the  final  vote.  When  a  bill 
has  passed  by  a  majority  vote  in  both  houses  it  is  sent  to 
the  Governor.  It  becomes  a  law  as  soon  as  the  Governor 
has  signed  it.  If  he  refuses  to  sign  it,  he  returns  it  to  the 
house  in  which  it  originated.  It  is  then  necessary  for  it 
to  pass  both  houses  again,  this  time  by  a  larger  vote,  usually 
two-thirds,  if  it  is  to  become  a  law. 


HOW  OUR  LAWS  ARE  MADE  303 

Lawmaking  in  the  Nation.  —  The  legislative  or  law- 
making branch  of  the  national  government  consists  of 
two  houses,  the  Senate  and  the  House  of  Representatives. 
The  upper  body  is  called  the  Senate  and  is  composed  of 
two  senators  from  each  state,  elected  by  the  people.  The 
House  of  Representatives  is  the  lower  body  and  is  com- 
posed of  nearly  four  hundred  and  fifty  members,  each  one 
representing  on  the  average  somewhat  over  two  hundred 
thousand  people  who  reside  in  a  Congressional  district. 
For  the  qualifications  for  membership  in  these  bodies, 
methods  of  election,  and  so  forth,  see  the  Constitution  at 
the  end  of  the  book. 

The  method  by  which  laws  are  made  by  Congress  is 
quite  similar  to  that  which  we  saw  in  considering  the  city 
and  the  state.  Because  of  the  large  number  of  bills  which 
are  introduced  every  session,  and  there  are  usually  several 
thousand  such  bills,  the  committee  system  is  most  neces- 
sary. Much  of  the  business  is  transacted  in  committee 
and  here  the  great  majority  of  the  bills  which  have  been 
submitted  are  killed.  We  find  the  three  readings  just  as 
in  the  city  and  state  method,  the  final  vote,  and  sending  of 
the  bill  to  the  other  house.  A  majority  vote  is  required  to 
pass  a  bill.  After  this  has  been  secured  the  bill  is  sent  the 
President.  If  he  approves  the  measure,  he  signs  it  and  it 
becomes  a  law.  If  he  disapproves,  he  returns  it  with  his 
objections  to  the  house  in  which  it  originated,  where  it  is 
reconsidered.  If  it  is  passed  by  a  two-thirds  vote  in  both 
houses,  it  becomes  a  law  over  the  President's  veto.  The 
President  may  allow  a  measure  to  become  a  law  by  neither 
approving  nor  disapproving  it  within  a  time  limit  of  ten  days. 


HOW  OUR  LAWS  ARE  MADE  305 

The  Executive  and  Lawmaking.  —  We  have  seen  how 
in  both  city,  state,  and  nation,  the  executive  plays  an 
important  part  in  the  making  of  the  laws  because  his  ap- 
proval is  required  before  any  measure  passed  by  the  legis- 
lative bodies  may  become  a  law.  If  he  withholds  his  ap- 
proval it  is  necessary  that  it  be  passed  by  a  larger  vote 
over  his  veto  before  it  becomes  effective.  There  is  another 
way  in  which  the  executive  shares  in  lawmaking.  At  the 
beginning  of  a  session  of  Congress  the  President  of  the 
United  States  sends  or  delivers  to  Congress  a  message  which 
he  has  written  directing  their  attention  to  certain  matters 
which  he  believes  should  be  attended  to  by  that  body. 
President  Wilson  has  followed  the  plan '  of  Washington 
and  Adams  in  appearing  before  Congress  and  addressing 
the  members  in  person  instead  of  sending  the  written 
message.  The  Governor  of  the  state  and  the  Mayor  of 
the  city  also  send  messages  to  the  legislative  bodies  calling 
their  attention  to  necessary  legislation.  The  executive, 
because  of  his  position,  has  an  opportunity  to  get  a  broader 
view  of  the  affairs  of  the  community  than  most  other 
people  and  so  is  in  a  position  to  recommend  legislation 
which  will  be  for  the  best  interests  of  the  community. 

How  the  Three  Governments  Work  Together.  —  If  we 
turn  to  the  tenth  amendment  to  the  Constitution  we  shall 
find  that  "  the  powers  not  delegated  to  the  United  States 
by  the  Constitution,  nor  prohibited  by  it  to  the  States, 
are  reserved  to  the  States  respectively,  or  to  the  people." 
In  other  words,  unless  a  power  is  actually  stated  or  implied 
in  the  Constitution  as  belonging  to  the  national  govern- 


306  A   SELF-GOVERNING   COMMUNITY 

ment  that  power  remains  in  the  hands  of  the  state.  If 
therefore  we  were  to  go  through  the  Constitution  and  dis- 
cover just  what  powers  are  conferred  on  the  various 
branches  of  the  national  government,  and  also  note  the 
restrictions  on  the  states,  all  other  powers  remaining  would 
represent  the  powers  of  the  state.  The  result  of  this  is 
that  the  great  bulk  of  our  laws  are  state  laws.  The  city 
on  the  other  hand  is  the  creature  of  the  state.  That  is,  so 
far  as  the  government  of  the  city  is  concerned,  it  exists 
only  because  it  is  permitted  by  the  state.  The  powers 
of  ordinance  making,  for  example,  which  our  cities  possess 
they  have  because  the  state  has  said  that  they  might  exer- 
cise these  powers  for  themselves.  The  state,  then,  knowing 
just  what  powers  belong  to  it  after  those  which  are  granted 
to  the  national  government  or  are  prohibited  by  the  Con- 
stitution are  removed,  and  also  just  what  powers  it  has 
delegated  to  the  cities,  has  its  own  definite  field  of  legis- 
lation. Thus  each  one  of  these  communities,  knowing  just 
what  its  limits  are,  is  able  to  make  laws  without  encroach- 
ing on  the  field  of  the  others. 

The  Constitution.  —  The  national  Constitution  is  the 
supreme  law  of  the  land.  The  making  of  this  is  a  matter 
of  history  which  we  may  read  if  we  turn  to  our  history  book. 
There  is,  however,  an  important  part  of  constitution  mak- 
ing which  is  still  going  on  at  the  present  time.  The  Con- 
stitution provides  that  it  may  be  amended  from  time  to 
time.  The  method  of  amending  the  national  constitu- 
tion we  shall  find  if  we  read  Article  V  of  that  document. 
We  should  make  ourselves  familiar  with  the  later  amend- 


HOW  OUR  LAWS  ARE  MADE  307 

ments,   especially  those  referring  to  income   taxes,   elec- 
tion of  senators,  and  prohibition. 

Lawmaking  Directly  by  the  People.  —  In  theory,  of 
course,  all  the  people  have  been  making  the  laws  under  the 
various  methods  which  we  have  just  been  considering. 
It  sometimes  happens,  however,  that  the  people  want 
some  particular  bit  of  legislation  made  or  it  may  be  some 
law  on  the  statute  books  repealed,  but  are  unable  to  get 
their  representatives  to  take  the  steps  which  they  desire. 
In  order  that  the  people  may  always  have  an  opportunity 
of  expressing  their  desires  directly,  just  as  they  had  under 
the  old  town  meeting  method,  we  find  in  some  places  the 
operation  of  a  direct  method  of  lawmaking  or  law  repeal- 
ing. These  are  spoken  of  as  the  initiative  and  the  referen- 
dum. 

Initiative.  —  Whenever  the  people  of  a  community 
enjoying  this  privilege  desire  to  have  a  new  law  made 
and  enforced  and  are  unable  to  get  it  in  the  regular  way, 
they  draw  up  a  petition  in  which  they  set  forth  the  law 
which  is  desired.  This  petition  must  be  signed  by  a  cer- 
tain number  of  qualified  voters.  It  is  then  filed  with  the 
election  officials.  An  election  is  then  called  at  which  the 
suggested  law  is  submitted  to  the  voters  for  their  approval 
or  disapproval.  If  the  measure  secures  the  necessary 
number  of  votes,  it  becomes  a  law  and  is  placed  on  the 
statute  books.  Such  laws  cannot  be  vetoed  by  the  ex- 
ecutive. 

Referendum.  —  In  order  that  undesirable  laws  may 
be  gotten  rid  of,  the  referendum  has  been  put  into  effect 


308  A   SELF-GOVERNING   COMMUNITY 

in  certain  places.  The  method  is  the  same  as  in  the  case 
of  the  initiative.  If  the  voters  vote  that  the  law  shall 
be  taken  from  the  statute  books  this  is  done,  and  the  un- 
desirable law  ceases  to  be  of  effect. 

Other  Methods  of  Control.  —  In  some  places  the  "re- 
call "  is  in  force.  This  enables  the  voters  of  a  district 
to  get  rid  of  a  representative  who  is  not  doing  as  the  com- 
munity desires,  without  having  to  wait  until  the  com- 
pletion of  his  term.  A  petition  for  his  recall  if  signed 
by  the  necessary  number  of  voters  and  filed  with  the  elec- 
tion officers  causes  an  election  to  be  held  at  which  time 
the  people  decide  whether  he  shall  remain  in  office  or  not. 
Provision  is  usually  made  to  elect  a  successor  in  case  the 
representative  is  recalled.  Where  this  does  not  exist, 
the  people  may  refuse  to  reelect  a  representative  who  has 
voted  for  legislation  which  is  unsatisfactory  and  vote 
for  a  representative  who  has  promised  to  repeal  it. 
They  may  also  use  their  influence  to  persuade  the  ex- 
ecutive to  veto  the  unsatisfactory  law.  The  people  must 
be  interested  enough  in  what  is  taking  place  in  their  legis- 
lative bodies  to  know  what  is  going  on  and  be  willing  to 
take  the  trouble  if  necessary  to  exert  their  influence  for 
the  measures  which  they  desire.  Few  representatives 
will  vote  against  the  wishes  of  the  people  whom  they  repre- 
sent if  they  know  that  these  people  are  watching  them. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  FURTHER   STUDY  AND    DISCUSSION 

i.  What  is  the  nature  of  the  legislative  body  of  your  city?  Of 
how  many  branches  does  it  consist  ?  What  is  its  membership  ?  Who 
are  the  representatives  from  your  own  ward  or  district? 


HOW  OUR  LAWS  ARE  MADE  309 

2.  Pay  a  visit  to  the  city  council  chambers  to  see  these  represen- 
tatives at  work.     Write  a  description  of  your  visit. 

3.  Take  some  ordinance  which  has  been  passed  recently  and  see 
if  you  can  find  out  why  it  has  been  passed. 

4.  How  would  you  go  about  securing  a  bit  of  needed  legislation 
which  was  to  benefit  your  neighborhood  ? 

5.  What  private  organizations  in  your  city  help  influence  the  kind 
of  laws  which  are  made? 

6.  What  are  the  qualifications,  term  of  office,  and  salary  of  your 
councilmen  ? 

7.  Secure  if  possible  a  copy  of  the  handbook  of  councils. 

8.  Who  are  your  local  representatives  to  the  state  Legislature? 
How  many  people  do  they  represent? 

9.  What  are  the  qualifications,  term  of  office,  and  salary  of  mem- 
bers of  your  state  legislature? 

10.  What  is  the  name  of  your  local  representative  in  the  House  of 
Representatives  at  Washington? 

11.  Who  represents  your  state  in  the  United  States  Senate? 

12.  What  are  the  qualifications,  term  of  office,  and  salaries  of  mem- 
bers of  Congress? 

13.  Secure  a  copy  of  a  recent  message  of  the  President  to  Congress. 
What  are  some  of  the  laws  which  are  recommended  ? 

14.  Study  the  preamble  to  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States. 

15.  Examine  the  Constitution  so  as  to  be  familiar  in  a  general  way 
with  its  arrangement  so  that  you  will  be  able  to  refer  to  it  readily  when 
necessary. 

16.  Are  the  initiative,  referendum,  and  recall  used  in  your  state  ? 
If  so,  find  an  illustration  of  how  they  have  been  used. 


CHAPTER  XIX 
ENFORCING  THE  LAWS 

The  legislative  bodies  of  our  communities  have  been 
making  laws  ever  since  the  beginning  of  the  community 
as  an  organized  group.  Many  laws  which  have  been  made 
in  the  past,  to  be  sure,  either  have  been  repealed  or  have 
fallen  into  disuse,  but  nevertheless  there  are  still  thousands 
of  laws  on  our  statute  books.  In  addition  to  all  these, 
there  are  many  unwritten  laws  which  have  been  handed 
down  through  the  centuries.  These  are  spoken  of  as  the 
common  law.  Laws  are  so  many  and  so  complicated  that 
the  study  of  them  constitutes  in  itself  a  lifelong  task.  The 
men  and  women  who  engage  in  this  study  of  laws  and  in 
the  practice  of  laws  before  the  courts  are  called  lawyers. 

The  mere  making  of  laws,  however,  and  the  placing  of 
them  on  the  statute  books  would  not  accomplish  anything 
for  the  community.  For  example,  we  might  decide  that 
the  keeping  of  pigs  within  city  limits  constituted  a  nui- 
sance and  have  councils  pass  an  ordinance  to  that  effect, 
and  write  it  upon  the  law  books  of  the  community,  but 
unless  some  one  had  the  power  to  compel  the  people  who 
were  keeping  pigs  within  city  limits  to  remove  them,  the 
law  might  just  as  well  never  have  been  passed.  Or  sup- 
pose we  were  to  decide  that  in  order  to  make  certain  public 
improvements  a  tax  must  be  paid  by  every  property  owner 

310' 


ENFORCING  THE  LAWS  31 1 

in  the  city.  Councils  might  pass  the  ordinance,  but  unless 
there  was  some  one  who  had  the  power  and  authority  to 
collect  the  tax  the  law  would  not  be  worth  the  paper  upon 
which  it  was  written.  It  is  therefore  necessary  that  we 
have  more  than  a  legislative  body  to  make  the  laws  and 
an  executive  to  sign  them,  and  even  a  court  to  see  that 
they  are  properly  interpreted  and  offenders  sentenced. 
What  is  necessary  is  an  organization  which  will  be  suffi- 
ciently strong  to  carry  out  the  desires  of  the  people. 

The  organized  control  by  means  of  which  the  business 
of  the  community  is  carried  on  is  called  the  government. 
The  business  of  the  community  is  the  securing  of  the  ele- 
ments of  welfare.  In  its  effort  to  secure  for  itself  health, 
protection,  education,  recreation,  civic  beauty,  facilities 
for  transportation  and  communication,  wealth,  and  to 
care  for  its  dependents,  defectives,  and  delinquents,  the 
community  establishes  for  itself  laws,  customs,  and  officers. 
In  the  carrying  out  of  the  wishes  of  the  community  we 
need  the  machinery  which  exercises  the  power  or  control 
over  the  community  and  each  individual  within  it.  This 
machinery  we  speak  of  as  organized  government  of  the 
community. 

Departments  of  Government.  —  In  each  of  our  three 
communities,  city,  state,  and  nation,  we  find  the  same  plan 
of  organization.  There  is  the  legislative  or  lawmaking 
branch,  the  executive  or  law-enforcing  branch,  and  the 
judicial  or  law-interpreting  branch.  In  the  two  previous 
chapters  we  have  taken  up  briefly  the  organization  and 
method  of  working  of  the  legislative  and  judicial  branches. 


312  A   SELF-GOVERNING   COMMUNITY 

But  these  two  branches  would  be  helpless  were  it  not  for 
the  law-enforcing  branch.  This  constitutes  the  most 
extensive  of  all  the  branches  of  government,  and  it  is  the 
one  with  which  we  come  most  in  contact. 

Of  all  the  officers  of  the  law  whom  we  see  most  frequently 
probably  the  policeman  ranks  first.  He  is  a  familiar  sight 
to  us  all  as  we  see  him  on  duty  as  we  go  about  our  work 
or  play.  He  represents  the  law  in  the  community.  Know- 
ing just  what  the  specific  ordinances  are  in  regard  to  con- 
ditions which  should  exist  in  our  neighborhood,  he  goes 
about  his  business  of  seeing  that  the  desires  of  the  people 
are  obeyed.  If  he  sees  evidence  of  persons  disregarding 
the  law,  he  calls  their  attention  to  it,  or  if  necessary  ar- 
rests them  and  brings  them  before  the  courts.  The  police- 
man may  be  used  to  serve  as  a  good  illustration  of  how 
the  community  has  organized  to  see  that  the  laws  are 
obeyed.  The  policeman  has  his  superior  officers.  Directly 
in  charge  of  him  and  seeing  that  he  carries  out  his  in- 
structions is  the  sergeant,  who  is  over  a  number  of  men, 
and  visits  them  while  they  are  on  duty.  Above  the  ser- 
geant we  find  the  police  lieutenant,  who  is  in  charge  of  all 
the  police  in  the  district.  Usually  above  the  lieutenant 
there  is  a  captain  of  police  who  is  responsible  for  the  con- 
duct of  a  number  of  districts.  Over  all  the  police  of  the 
city  we  find  a  chief  of  police,  or  some  other  official,  who  is 
held  responsible  for  the  conduct  of  the  entire  police  force. 
He  may  be  a  commissioner  of  police  or  even  director  of 
the  city  department  of  public  safety.  The  number  of 
men  represented  in  the  entire  organization  may  be  up  in 
the  thousands.     It  is  this  group  of  men  who  are  respon- 


ENFORCING  THE  LAWS  313 

sible  largely  for  the  enforcement  of  the  ordinances  of  the  city, 
pertaining  to  the  protection  of  life  and  property.  The 
director  of  the  department  or  the  commissioner  is  respon- 
sible to  the  mayor  of  the  city  for  seeing  that  all  of  this 
work  is  attended  to.  The  mayor,  however,  is  the  chief 
executive  of  the  city.  He  has  been  selected  by  the  people 
and  put  in  charge  of  seeing  that  the  laws  are  carried  out. 
Each  policeman,  therefore,  as  he  goes  about  his  business  is 
really  standing  in  the  place  of  the  mayor  in  carrying  out 
the  wishes  of  the  people. 

It  is  as  if  the  people  of  the  community  had  said  :  "  We 
want  to  make  sure  that  our  lives  and  property  are 
protected.  We  shall  take  this  man  from  our  number  and 
hold  him  responsible  for  the  doing  of  this  thing.  Mr. 
Mayor,  you  are  to  see  that  our  lives  and  property  are 
protected."  But  not  only  do  they  hold  him  responsible 
for  the  protection  of  their  lives  and  property,  but  also  for 
all  the  other  elements  of  the  welfare  of  the  community. 
He  must  look  after  their  health,  their  recreation,  their 
business  interests,  and  so  forth.  If  the  community  were 
very  small  and  the  mayor  very  wise,  he  might  possibly 
do  all  these  things  for  the  community  by  himself.  But 
where  the  community  is  even  of  fair  size,  he  cannot  pos- 
sibly do  all  these  things  by  himself,  but  must  have  helpers. 
He  therefore  calls  to  his  assistance  men  and  women  trained 
in  certain  definite  lines  of  community  service.  To  one,  a 
skilled  physician,  he  delegates  the  task  of  looking  after  the 
health  of  the  community,  to  another  its  transportation 
problems,  and  so  on.  These  people  then  become  the  heads 
of  the  various  departments  which  are  responsible  for  the 


314  A  SELF-GOVERNING  COMMUNITY 

elements  of  welfare  in  the  city.  The  job  being  so  large, 
they  in  their  turn  employ  assistants  sufficient  to  do  all 
the  necessary  work  in  the  community.  In  this  manner, 
power  from  the  people  delegated  to  the  mayor  is  divided 
by  him  among  a  number  of  people,  and  each  one  is  held 
responsible  for  his  own  share  of  the  work. 

The  matter  of  public  safety  involves  a  number  of  things  : 
for  instance,  police  protection,  fire  protection,  building  in- 
spection, and  so  forth.  The  entire  organization  which  is 
responsible  for  all  these  things  and  over  which  the  Di- 
rector of  Public  Safety  presides  is  often  spoken  of  as  a  de- 
partment. Fire  protection  is  however  a  special  branch 
of  the  work.  The  man  in  charge  of  this  should  be  an  ex- 
pert in  his  line.  The  head  of  the  Department  may  not 
possess  this  special  knowledge.  He  therefore  delegates 
this  line  of  work  to  a  chief  who  will  handle  all  the  matter  of 
fire  fighting  and  prevention.  The  organization  which  is 
responsible  for  this  work  will  be  a  part  of  the  Department, 
and  is  usually  referred  to  as  a  Bureau. 

We  find  this  type  of  organization  in  city,  state,  and  na- 
tion. That  is,  the  executive,  the  Mayor,  the  Governor, 
or  the  President,  is  the  representative  of  the  people  to  whom 
has  been  delegated  the  responsibility  for  the  enforcement 
of  the  laws  of  the  community.  For  purposes  of  admin- 
istration the  work  is  divided  into  departments,  as,  for 
example,  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  the  Depart- 
ment of  Commerce,  and  so  forth.  Over  each  one  of  these 
Departments  we  find  a  department  head  called,  for  example, 
in  the  nation  a  secretary,  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  Secre- 
tary of  Commerce  >  and  so  forth.     The  work  of  each  De- 


ENFORCING  THE  LAWS  315 

partment  is  divided  up  among  the  several  Bureaus  of 
which  the  Department  is  composed,  for  example,  the  De- 
partment of  Agriculture  has  among  its  Bureaus  the  Bureau 
of  Animal  Industry,  the  Bureau  of  Forest  Service,  and 
so  on. 

The  people  of  the  nation  are  the  source  of  all  the  power 
of  the  nation.  It  is  they  who  have  made  the  fundamental 
law  or  Constitution,  planning  the  general  organization  of 
government  and  distributing  powers  among  city,  state, 
and  nation.  It  is  they  who  elect  the  executives  or  those 
who  are  to  be  responsible  for  enforcing  their  wishes  or 
laws,  just  as  they  have  elected  the  representatives  who 
have  made  the  laws,  and  either  elected  or  had  appointed 
the  judges  who  are  to  interpret  them  and  aid  in  their  en- 
forcement. Behind  legislators,  judges,  and  executives, 
therefore,  is  the  American  people.  When  a  law  is  made 
it  is  their  desire  expressed.  When  it  is  enforced  it  is  their 
act.  The  executive,  while  responsible  to  the  people  for 
the  enforcement  of  all  the  law,  delegates  to  assistants,  de- 
partment heads,  the  care  of  certain  phases  of  the  law. 
These  in  turn  divide  up  the  field  for  which  they  are  re- 
sponsible among  others,  the  heads  of  bureaus.  And  these 
in  their  turn  have  under  them,  for  the  actual  task  of  carry- 
ing out  every  provision  of  the  law,  a  more  or  less  compli- 
cated organization  reaching  down  to  the  policeman,  the 
fireman,  the  forest  ranger,  the  game  warden,  the  deputy 
marshal,  and  so  forth  who  actually  collect  the  evidence, 
make  the  arrests,  and  carry  out  the  purpose  of  the  laws 
in  direct  contact  with  the  people  who  have  set  up  the 
machinery  of  government. 


316  A   SELF-GOVERNING  COMMUNITY 

SUGGESTIONS   FOR  FURTHER   STUDY    AND     DISCUSSION 

i.  Show  by  means  of  a  simple  diagram  the  organization  of  the  ma- 
chinery of  government  to  which  each  of  the  following  belongs:  the 
policeman;  the  fireman;  the  school  teacher;  the  boiler  inspector; 
the  game  warden ;  the  inspector  of  mines ;  the  postman ;  and  any  other 
in  whom  you  are  interested. 

2.  Who  is  in  charge  of  each  of  the  executive  departments  of  your 
local  government?  How  are  they  chosen?  Who  is  the  chief  execu- 
tive ?  Find  out  all  you  can  about  the  services  which  he  renders  to  your 
community. 

3.  Who  is  governor  of  your  state?  How  is  he  elected?  For  how 
long?     What  are  some  of  his  duties? 

4.  Make  a  list  of  the  various  executive  departments  of  the  United 
States  government.  Place  opposite  each  the  name  of  the  secretary 
who  is  in  charge  of  the  department.  What  bureaus  do  we  find  under 
each  department  ?  What  are  some  of  the  services  rendered  to  all  the 
people  by  these  bureaus? 

5.  By  reference  to  the  constitution  find  out  what  are  some  of  the 
powers  of  the  President  of  the  United  States. 

6.  How  i>  the  President  elected?  In  what  respect  is  the  present 
method  of  election  undemocratic  ? 


CHAPTER    XX 
MEETING   THE   EXPENSES   OF   GOVERNMENT 

The  government  of  our  communities,  local,  state,  and 
national,  is  a  tremendous  business  undertaking.  In  fact, 
it  is  the  largest  business  in  the  United  States.  If  we  con- 
sider the  number  of  people  who  are  employed  by  our  city 
to  do  those  things  for  which  the  local  government  is  held 
responsible,  we  find  that  they  number  from  hundreds  in 
the  larger  towns,  to  thousands  in  our  large  cities.  They 
include  the  teachers,  the  policemen,  the  firemen,  and  the 
many  other  city  employees.  If  we  extend  this  so  as  to  in- 
clude our  state,  the  numbers  increase  rapidly.  But  when 
we  consider  the  national  community  with  its  army  and 
navy,  the  postal  employees,  and  so  forth,  we  have  a  number 
which  is  enormous.  When  we  consider  in  addition  the 
activities  of  all  these  communities,  we  begin  to  realize 
to  some  extent  what  a  great  business  the  government  of 
our  communities  is  carrying  on.  All  these  employees 
must  be  paid.  Operations  of  street  cleaning,  road  build- 
ing, irrigation,  and  countless  other  activities  involve  the 
expenditure  of  millions  of  dollars  every  year. 

The  business  of  the  government  of  a  community  is 
solely  for  the  benefit  of  the  community.  Each  member 
of  the  community  reaps  the  benefits  which  come  to  the 
community  as  a  result  of  the  services  which  are  rendered 

317 


318  A   SELF-GOVERNING   COMMUNITY 

and  the  money  expended.  In  fact,  the  community  busi- 
ness is  a  partnership  in  which  each  member  of  the  com- 
munity is  an  active  partner,  sharing  the  benefits  of  the 
community  effort  and  therefore  sharing  also  the  expense. 
It  is  because  of  the  services  rendered  that  the  community 
comes  to  the  individual  member  for  his  share  in  bearing 
the  cost  of  securing  the  elements  of  welfare. 

In  return  for  the  contribution  which  we  make  to  the 
community  we  receive  benefits  far  out  of  proportion  to 
the  money  which  we  put  in.  Our  health  is  safeguarded, 
our  lives  and  property  protected  ;  our  business  interests 
are  protected  and  provision  is  made  that  we  may  secure 
for  ourselves  some  share  of  the  wealth  of  the  community ; 
we  receive  the  benefits  of  a  free  education,  healthful 
recreation,  and  many  other  things.  Such  of  our  money  as 
is  spent  through  the  organized  government  of  the  com- 
munity is  productive  of  better  and  farther-reaching  results 
than  any  other  investment  we  can  make. 

Taxation.  —  One  of  the  means  by  which  the  community 
secures  the  money  necessary  for  carrying  on  the  many 
activities  by  which  it  provides  for  the  elements  of  wel- 
fare is  taxation.  A  tax  is  a  compulsory  contribution  laid 
upon  persons,  property,  or  business,  for  the  purpose  of 
raising  money  for  the  proper  conduct  of  the  government. 
It  is  money  which  is  collected  from  the  members  of  a  com- 
munity in  order  that  the  running  expenses  of  the  community 
may  be  met  and  that  the  wishes  of  the  community  may  be 
attained.  It  is  really  the  manner  in  which  the  members 
of  the  community  purchase  for  themselves  the  services 
necessary  for  their  very  existence  as  a  community. 


MEETING  THE  EXPENSES  OF  GOVERNMENT         319 

Kinds  of  Taxes.  —  Taxes  are  usually  divided  into  two 
main  groups  —  direct  and  indirect.  Direct  taxes  are  those 
which  are  borne  by  the  person  from  whom  they  are  collected. 
Indirect  taxes  are  those  which  may  be  shifted  from  the  one 
who  pays  them  originally  to  the  person  who  finally  pur- 
chases the  article  or  service  upon  which  the  tax  was  origi- 
nally laid.  For  example,  an  income  tax,  or  tax  on  the 
earnings  of  a  person  for  the  year,  is  a  direct  tax,  since  it 
must  be  borne  by  the  one  whose  income  is  taxed  and  may 
not  be  passed  on.  An  indirect  tax,  on  the  other  hand, 
would  be  such  a  tax  as  might  be  laid  on  an  article  imported 
into  the  country.  In  this  case,  while  the  importer  pays 
the  tax  in  the  first  place,  he  sees  to  it  that  the  price  of 
the  article  when  it  is  sold  to  the  purchaser  is  sufficient  to 
include  the  tax. 

FINANCING  THE  CITY 

Expenses  of  City  Government.  —  Except  in  time  of 
war  and  the  period  immediately  following,  when  the  ex-^ 
penses  of  the  national  government  have  increased  tre- 
mendously, the  great  bulk  of  the  money  secured  by  taxa- 
tion is  raised  and  expended  by  the  city.  It  was  estimated 
that  before  the  war  about  sixty  per  cent  of  all  money 
secured  by  taxation  was  raised  in  the  cities  of  the  nation. 
When  we  consider  the  many  activities  in  which  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  city  is  engaged,  we  are  not  surprised  at 
this  statement.  The  cities  pay  the  salaries  of  policemen, 
firemen,  teachers,  inspectors,  and  numerous  other  gov- 
ernment officials  and  employees.  They  pave,  repair, 
and  clean  the  streets ;  build  bridges,  wharves ;  construct 


320  A   SELF-GOVERNING  COMMUNITY 

systems  for  water  supply  and  sewage  disposal ;  and  do 
countless  other  things  for  the  welfare  of  the  city  com- 
munity. All  this  involves  the  expenditure  of  many  mil- 
lions of  dollars. 

General  Property  Tax.  —  The  principal  source  of  in- 
come to  the  city  governments  is  the  general  property 
tax.  Of  this  the  largest  amount  is  received  from  the  taxa- 
tion of  real  estate.  Such  a  tax  is  probably  the  easiest  of 
all  taxes  to  assess  and  collect.  Real  estate  is  used  by  all 
members  of  the  community.  Owners  or  users  of  real 
estate  receive  a  large  proportion  of  the  benefits  resulting 
from  the  spending  by  the  government  of  the  money  raised 
by  taxes  and  should  therefore  be  required  to  pay  in  propor- 
tion to  their  benefits.  Each  person's  share  in  the  expenses 
of  the  government  should  be  determined  by  his  ability  to 
pay,  and  possession  or  use  of  real  estate  is  a  fairly  good  indi- 
cation of  one's  wealth  and  therefore  ability  to  pay.  Then, 
too,  if  one  is  living  in  a  house  as  a  boarder,  it  is  a  simple 
matter  for  the  proprietor  to  distribute  a  part  of  the  cost 
of  taxation,  by  including  it  in  the  board  bill.  In  this  man- 
ner it  becomes  in  part  indirect  taxation. 

Assessment.  —  In  order  that  the  amount  of  tax  which 
each  property  owner  should  pay  may  be  known,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  find  out  first  the  total  value  of  property  in  the  city. 
If  we  know  how  much  .money  will  have  to  be  raised  by 
real  estate  tax  in  order  to  pay  the  expenses  of  the  govern- 
ment, we  can  readily  determine  the  percentage  of  tax 
which  each  owner  must  pay.  This  is  done  by  dividing 
the  total  real  estate  value  of  the  community  into  the  amount 


MEETING  THE  EXPENSES  OF  GOVERNMENT         321 

which  represents  that  necessary  to  be  raised  by  this  form 
of  taxation.  The  result  will  be  the  percentage  of  tax  on 
valuation  which  each  owner  should  pay.  For  example,  if  it 
were  determined  that  the  expenses  of  the  city  would 
require  that  $1,500,000  be  raised  by  real  estate  tax,  and 
the  assessed  value  of  the  real  estate  of  the  city  amounted 
to  $100,000,000,  then  by  dividing  this  last  amount  into  the 
former  we  would  get  as  our  result  .015,  or  one  and  one 
half  per  cent,  the  amount  of  the  necessary  tax.  In  other 
words,  there  would  have  to  be  a  tax  of  $1.50  on  every  $100 
worth  of  assessed  property  in  order  to  secure  the  necessary 
million  and  a  half  of  money  for  the  government.  The 
value  assigned  to  each  property  in  the  community  is  de- 
termined by  the  real  estate  assessors. 

Other  Sources  of  Income.  —  Where  the  city  controls 
the  water,  gas,  or  other  services  rendered,  there  is  an  ad- 
ditional source'  of  income  available.  Often,  however, 
such  services  are  rendered  at  as  near  the  cost  of  main- 
tenance, operation,  and  depreciation  as  possible,  so  that  the 
net  income  is  quite  small.  In  addition  to  this  there  is 
the  income  which  is  received  from  the  granting  of  licenses 
and  permits.  Then,  too,  the  state  quite  frequently  helps 
somewhat  to  defray  the  local  community  expense  of  the 
school  system. 

Special  assessments  are  made  on  the  owners  of  property 
when  the  city  opens,  grades,  or  paves  a  street,  installs  a 
system  of  water  supply  or  sewer  pipes,  or  in  other  ways 
improves  the  condition  of  the  adjoining  land  and  thereby 
increases  the  value  of  the  property. 


322  A   SELF-GOVERNING   COMMUNITY 

Another  source  of  income  to  the  city  is  by  a  method  which 
is  known  as  H  excess  condemnation."  In  the  making  of 
improvements  the  government  will  frequently  have  to 
purchase  property,  as  for  example  in  the  construction  of  a 
parkway  or  boulevard.  The  city  attempts  to  purchase 
this  property  in  the  regular  way.  Often,  however,  owners 
of  such  land  are  unwilling  to  sell  to  the  city  at  the  figures 
which  they  would  take  from  an  individual.  In  a  case 
of  this  kind  the  government  has  the  right  to  compel  the 
owner  to  sell,  awarding  him  a  fair  price  for  the  property, 
which  has  been  set  by  a  jury  of  condemnation.  But  the 
building  of  such  a  parkway  will  mean  that  all  the  land 
in  the  vicinity  will  increase  very  much  in  value.  In  order 
that  all  the  people  may  share  in  the  profits  arising  from 
such  an  increase,  the  city  will  often  acquire  considerably 
more  land  than  is  actually  required  for  the  improvement. 
By  holding  this  until  after  the  parkway  has  been  built,  it 
may  be  sold  at  a  considerable  increase  in  price.  The  money 
so  made  belongs  to  all  the  people.  It  may  be  used  to  help 
defray  the  expenses  of  the  project  or  for  any  other  purpose 
to  which  the  people  care  to  put  it.  In  this  way  all  the 
people  of  the  community  profit  instead  of  a  few  individuals. 

Borrowing  Money.  —  Permanent  improvements,  such 
as  the  building  of  bridges,  construction  of  streets,  installa- 
tion of  filtration  plants,  and  so  forth,  require  the  expendi- 
ture of  large  sums  of  money.  It  is  not  only  the  people, 
however,  who  are  living  at  the  time  the  improvement  is 
made,  but  also  those  who  are  to  come  after  them  who  will 
profit  by  the  operation.     Such  a  project  is  a  benefit  to  the 


MEETING  THE   EXPENSES  OF  GOVERNMENT         323 

city  for  many  years.  Instead  of  taxing  the  people  or 
placing  an  assessment  and  requiring  the  present  popu- 
lation to  stand  all  the  expense,  the  money  is  frequently 
borrowed  to  be  paid  back  over  a  period  of  a  number  of 
years.  The  city  owns  much  property  which  may  be  regarded 
as  security  for  money  which  it  borrows.  Bonds  are  there- 
fore issued  and  sold.  The  money  received  from  the  sale 
of  the  bonds  is  used  to  pay  for  the  improvement.  The 
people  who  hold  the  bonds  are  paid  a  certain  rate  of  interest 
on  their  money,  and  out  of  the  regular  taxes  assessed 
each  year,  a  sinking  fund  is  provided  with  which  the  bonds 
may  be  paid  off  when  they  mature. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION 

1.  Secure  a  copy  of  a  tax  receipt  for  your  city.  Note  how  the  money 
is  apportioned  to  meet  the  various  expenses  of  government. 

2.  How  much  money  was  raised  by  your  city  last  year?  What 
was  the  tax  rate  ?    Estimate  the  assessed  valuation  of  the  city  property. 

3.  What  is  a  poll  tax?  Why  do  some  people  oppose  the  collection 
of  this  kind  of  tax? 

4.  What  is  the  amount  of  debt  of  your  city  ? 

5.  Discuss  the  business  management  of  city  operations.  Should 
they  be  self-supporting? 

6.  Explain  why  a  man  who  sends  his  children  to  private  schools 
should  be  required  to  pay  a  tax  for  the  support  of  the  public  schools. 
What  indirect  benefits  does  he  receive  from  the  public  school  system  ? 

7.  Why  is  the  finance  committee  of  the  legislative  branch  considered 
of  great  importance  ? 

8.  Is  the  budget  system  used  in  your  city?    How  is  it  operated? 

FINANCING  THE  STATE 

When  the  city  dweller  pays  his  tax  to  the  city  treasurer, 
he  is  paying  at  the  same  time  his  county  and  state  tax. 


324  A   SELF-GOVERNING   COMMUNITY 

The  county  commissioners  have  fixed  the  amount  which 
is  to  go  for  county  purposes,  while  the  state  legislature 
has  determined  what  shall  be  required  for  the  state.  But 
in  addition  to  this  tax,  which  is  based  on  general  property, 
the  state  has  other  sources  of  income. 

Many  of  the  states  secure  a  large  part  of  their  revenue 
from  the  taxes  which  are  laid  on  corporations.  It  would 
be  a  difficult  matter  to  have  each  individual  pay  a  tax  on 
the  shares  which  he  holds  in  these  business  concerns.  It 
is  a  much  simpler  matter  to  tax  the  corporation  on  its 
earnings  or  on  its  total  capital  stock.  In  this  way  the 
state  is  sure  that  all  of  the  stock  is  taxed,  for  the  money 
which  is  required  to  pay  the  tax  is  deducted  from  its  earn- 
ings by  the  corporation  before  a  dividend  is  paid  to  the 
stockholders.  In  this  manner  also  the  burden  of  the  tax 
is  equally  distributed. 

About  three-fourths  of  the  states  secure  revenue  by  tax- 
ing inheritances.  When  a  person  dies  and  leaves  money 
or  property,  these  states  require  that  a  certain  percentage 
of  the  value  be  paid  as  a  tax  to  the  state.  The  amount 
which  is  charged  varies  with  .the  amount  of  the  inherit- 
ance, a  larger  rate  being  charged  on  large  fortunes  than  on 
small.  Other  sources  of  revenue  are  taxes  on  automobiles, 
legal  papers,  money  at  interest,  poll  taxes,  and  so  forth. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION 

i.  Make  a  list  of  the  sources  of  income  of  your  state.  What  was 
the  total  amount  collected  from  all  sources  last  year  ?  For  what  pur- 
poses is  this  money  expended? 

2.   How  and  by  whom  are  your  state  taxes  collected? 


MEETING  THE   EXPENSES  OF   GOVERNMENT         325 

3.  Why  do  not  states  tax  articles  being  brought  into  them  from 
without  ? 

4.  For  what  purposes  does  your  state  use  the  money  which  it  col- 
lects ? 

FINANCING  THE  NATIONAL   GOVERNMENT 

If  you  turn  to  the  eighth  section  of  the  first  article  of 
the  national  constitution,  you  will  find  that  it  states  that 
"  Congress  shall  have  power  to  lay  and  collect  taxes.  ..." 
About  half  of  the  revenue  of  the  national  government 
in  normal  peace  times  has  come  from  the  tax  which  Con- 
gress has  laid  upon  goods  which  are  being  brought  into 
the  United  States.  The  rest  of  the  revenue  comes  chiefly 
from  internal  revenue,  or  taxes  laid  on  goods  manufactured 
in  the  country,  and  from  the  taxation  of  incomes. 

The  Tariff.  —  The  schedule  of  rate  which  Congress 
prepares  which  indicates  how  much  the  tax  shall  be  on  all 
imported  goods  is  called  the  tariff.  Because  of  the  lower 
wages  paid  in  other  countries,  it  is  possible  for  manufac- 
turers in  these  countries  to  send  many  commodities  to  the 
United  States,  and  the  purchaser  after  paying  a  consider- 
able tax  to  the  collector  of  customs  at  the  port  of  entry 
is  able  to  sell  these  goods  at  a  profit.  So  long  as  the  rate 
of  tax  is  kept  just  low  enough  to  permit  this  profit  it  is 
a  source  of  much  income.  When,  however,  it  is  raised 
to  the  point  where  the  tax  eats  up  all  the  profits,  it  is  no 
longer  desirable  to  import  such  goods  and  the  result  is  that 
they  are  shut  out  of  the  country.  A  high  protective  tariff 
has  been  used  to  protect  American  industries  but  may  be 
made  so  high  that  much  needed  foreign  goods  are  kept  out. 


326  A  SELF-GOVERNING   COMMUNITY 

Income  Tax.  —  The  subject  of  income  taxes  was  for 
many  years  a  much  disputed  problem  in  our  country.  It 
was  recognized  that  an  income  tax  afforded  a  fairly  easy 
manner  of  raising  money  for  the  government.  As  the 
money  has  to  be  obtained  in  some  way,  it  was  argued 
that  to  tax  incomes  was  a  sure  way  of  having  the  tax 
apportioned  among  the  people  so  that  its  burden  would 
be  shared  according  to  the  ability  of  the  people  to  pay. 
It  was,  however,  decided  by  -the  Supreme  Court  that 
such  a  tax  was  unconstitutional.  In  order  to  overcome 
this  difficulty,  the  Constitution  has  been  amended,  and 
we  have  in  the  sixteenth  amendment  the  power  granted  to 
Congress  "  to  lay  and  collect  taxes  on  incomes."  Under 
the  laws  which  have  been  passed  by  Congress  under  the 
authority  of  this  amendment  enormous  revenues  come  to 
the  national  government. 

In  order  that  hardship  might  be  avoided  the  tax  on  in- 
comes is  carefully  graded.  There  is  a  limit  below  which 
the  tax  does  not  operate.  Then,  too,  if  a  man  is  married 
the  limit  is  increased.  The  percentage  of  tax  on  the  amount 
of  income  received  above  the  exempted  limit  is  graded 
so  that  it  increases  from  a  small  tax  for  small  incomes  to 
a  very  heavy  tax  on  large  incomes. 

Excises  or  Internal  Revenue  Taxes.  —  An  excise  tax  is 
one  which  is  levied  on  the  manufacture  and  sale  of  articles 
produced  within  the  country.  Until  the  passage  of  the 
laws  prohibiting  the  manufacture  and  sale  of  alcoholic 
beverages,  a  very  considerable  income  was  received  by  the 
government  through   the  tax  on   their  manufacture  and 


MEETING  THE  EXPENSES  OF  GOVERNMENT         327 

sale.  Tobacco  is  taxed  in  this  manner.  If  we  examine  a 
box  of  cigars  we  shall  find  the  government  revenue  stamp 
pasted  on  the  box  so  that  it  is  impossible  to  open  the  box 
without  destroying  the  stamp.  At  the  present  time  the 
use  of  excise  taxes  has  been  tremendously  increased.  In 
order  to  help  meet  the  extra  expenses  which  the  govern- 
ment faces  as  a  result  of  the  great  war,  all  articles  of  luxury 
are  taxed,  as  well  as  drugs,  perfumes,  and  so  forth.  The 
government  is  also  receiving  revenue  from  taxes  imposed 
on  all  sorts  of  legal  papers  and  documents. 

Borrowing  Money.  —  There  is  probably  hardly  a  school 
boy  or  girl  in  the  United  States  who  has  not  been  a  bond 
salesman  for  Uncle  Sam.  During  the  five  Liberty  Loan 
campaigns  the  boys  and  girls  of  the  schools  of  the  country 
did  a  most  splendid  service.  Many  of  us  are  ourselves 
the  proud  owners  of  such  bonds.  We  have  learned  to  feel 
that  the  holding  of  these  bonds  indicates  that  we  are  part 
owners  of  the  government.  It  was  by  the  issuing  of  bonds 
to  the  amount  of  several  billions  of  dollars  that  the  gov- 
ernment was  able  to  meet  the  immediate  expenses  of  rais- 
ing and  equipping  an  army  and  navy,  and  transporting 
more  than  two  millions  of  soldiers  across  the  Atlantic. 
This  money  the  government  now  owes  principally  to  the 
citizens,  who  make  up  the  government  itself.  We  are  tax- 
ing ourselves  to  raise  money  to  be  able  to  pay  off  our  in- 
debtedness to  ourselves.  With  the  close  of  the  war  the 
public  debt  has  mounted  to  over  twenty-six  billions  of 
dollars.  The  income  from  all  sources  to  the  national 
government  for  the  first  year  following  the  war  is  estimated 


328  A  SELF-GOVERNING  COMMUNITY 

by  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  as  being  about  six  billion, 
five  hundred  million  dollars. 

Appropriations.  —  The  expenditure  of  the  money  which 
is  raised  by  means  of  taxation  and  other  sources  is  spoken 
of  as  appropriation.  Just  as  the  legislative  body  has  the 
power  of  laying  the  tax,  so  it  has  the  right  to  say  in  what 
manner  the  money  shall  be  expended.  This  power  of  mak- 
ing appropriations  gives  the  legislative  bodies  a  control 
over  the  executive,  since  they  are  able  to  hold  up  appro- 
priations which  are  needed  by  the  executive  branch  of  this 
government.  In  this  manner  they  are  able  at  times  to  in- 
fluence the  action  of  the  executive. 

Budget  Making.  —  The  money  which  is  raised  in  city, 
state,  and  nation  is  for  the  purpose  of  meeting  the  ex- 
penses of  government.  We  have  seen  how  in  determin- 
ing the  tax  rate  it  is  necessary  to  determine  the  amount 
of  money  which  will  be  necessary  to  meet  the  require- 
ments of  the  government  during  the  period  for  which  the 
taxes  are  being  raised.  The  carefully  calculated  summary 
of  the  expenses  of  the  government  for  a  stated  period,  to- 
gether with  the  estimate  of  means  of  revenue  to  meet 
these  expenses,  is  called  a  budget.  This  is  so  important 
that  in  many  of  the  governments  in  Europe  we  find  an 
officer,  who  is  a  member  of  the  Cabinet,  whose  business  it 
is  to  prepare  such  a  budget.  In  the  United  States,  on  the 
other  hand,  except  in  a  few  places  we  fail  to  find  the  budget 
system  used.  Of  course  there  are  estimates,  but  they  are 
rather  in  the  lines  of  recommendations,  and  are  treated 
by  the  executive  and  the  legislative  bodies  as  they  see  fit. 


MEETING  THE  EXPENSES  OF  GOVERNMENT         329 

Often  appropriations  are  made  without  reference  to  the 
amount  of  money  in  the  treasury.  If  the  revenues  and 
expenditures  come  out  fairly  accurately,  it  is  usually  the 
result  of  accident.  If  careful  planning  is  necessary  in  the 
spending  of  the  small  income  of  a  household,  it  is  even  more 
necessary  in  the  spending  of  the  millions  of  city,  state, 
and  nation.  A  budget  system  for  the  national  government 
is  likely  to  be  made  effective  in  the  near  future. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  FURTHER   STUDY   AND   DISCUSSION 

1.  How  are  duties  on  imported  goods  collected?  Describe  what 
takes  place  when  a  traveler  returns  to  the  United  States  from  a  visit 
to  another  country. 

2.  Plan  a  debate  on  the  subject  of  high  protective  tariff  vs.  a  revenue 
tariff. 

3.  What  incomes  are  exempt  from  taxation  under  the  present  law? 
What  are  the  rates  of  tax  on  incomes  above  the  exempt  levels  ? 

4.  What  arguments  could  you  advance  against  the  proposition  that 
the  manufacture  and  sale  of  intoxicating  beverages  should  be  permitted 
because  of  the  revenue  which  they  bring  to  the  government  ? 

5.  What  advantages  do  thrift  stamps  and  War  Savings  stamps  possess 
as  means  of  saving  ?     Of  what  advantage  are  they  to  the  government  ? 


CHAPTER  XXI 
PARTY   GOVERNMENT  AND    CIVIL   SERVICE 

We  have  seen  how  in  the  United  States  the  laws  are 
made,  interpreted,  and  enforced  by  the  representatives 
of  the  people.  These  laws  are  merely  the  expressed  or 
formulated  will  or  desire  of  the  people  and  are  regarded 
just  as  if  they  had  been  made  by  all  the  people  gathered 
together.  The  representative  is  not  expressing  merely 
his  own  ideas  and  opinions  in  regard  to  matters  of  public 
welfare,  but  those  of  his  constituents,  as  the  people  whom 
he  represents  are  called.  He  has  been  elected  to  repre- 
sent them  and  to  express  for  them  their  point  of  view  and 
wishes. 

We  all  know,  however,  that  it  is  practically  impossible 
to  find  any  group  of  people  who  think  in  just  the  same 
way  about  all  matters.  In  fact,  even  in  closely  organized 
groups,  where  the  numbers  are  small,  and  where  the  pur- 
pose of  the  organization  is  very  definite,  we  are  likely  to 
find  quite  divergent  views  held  by  different  members. 
Far  from  being  harmful,  this  is  considered  a  very  useful 
and  healthful  state  of  affairs,  for  it  indicates  that  the  people 
are  thinking  for  themselves.  If  there  are  differences  of 
opinion  in  even  so  close  a  group  as  our  own  family,  how 
much  more  likely  are  we  to  find  a  difference  of  opinion 
in  the  group  which  constitutes  the  community,  city,  state, 

330 


PARTY  GOVERNMENT  AND   CIVIL  SERVICE  33 1 

or  nation,  with  their  problems  consisting  of  all  the  ele- 
ments of  human  welfare. 

It  would  seem,  then,  that  it  would  be  practically  im- 
possible for  one  person  to  represent  a  large  number  of 
others,  for  instance,  a  representative  in  Congress  standing 
for  over  two  hundred  thousand  people,  or  a  governor  of  a 
state,  representing  the  millions  of  the  state's  population, 
or  even  the  President  standing  for  the  hundred  million 
citizens  of  the  national  government.  Yet  this  is  the  sys- 
tem upon  which  our  country  was  organized,  and  under 
which  it  has  been  running  successfully  for  nearly  a  cen- 
tury and  a  half.  Let  us  see  what  some  of  the  principles 
are  which  underlie  the  plan  of  organization. 

Every  community  is  held  together  by  the  commonness 
of  interests  among  its  members.  In  city,  state,  and  nation, 
there  exists  the  common  interest  in  the  elements  of  welfare. 
The  differences  of  opinion  where  they  exist  are  in  regard  to 
the  manner  in  which  the  welfare  of  the  group  is  to  be  at- 
tained. All  are  interested  in  the  one  common  object. 
How  to  attain  the  goal  desired  is  the  only  question  of 
controversy.  There  are  usually  a  number  of  ways  of  ac- 
complishing almost  anything  which  we  set  out  to  do.  Some 
will  favor  one  method,  others  another.  In  a  democracy 
the  will  of  the  majority  decides,  so  when  we  find  that  the 
majority  want  a  thing  done  a  certain  way  we  do  it  that  way. 
A  good  sport  does  not  hold  off  and  quarrel  when  he  finds 
that  his  way  is  not  the  way  others  want  the  thing  done. 

In  every  community  there  are  many  matters  which  re- 
quire the  attention  of  the  people  as  they  strive  for  the 
welfare  of  all.     Some  of  these  things  are  more  important 


332  A   SELF-GOVERNING  COMMUNITY 

than  others.  A  few,  or  it  may  be  even  one,  of  these  is  of 
such  great  importance  and  interest  that  the  people  are 
willing  to  make  the  manner  of  handling  this  matter  the 
principal  reason  for  selecting  their  representative.  When 
such  a  matter  arises,  it  may  be  the  question  of  city  con- 
tracts, or  state  highways,  or  national  tariff  and  it  is  spoken 
of  as  an  issue. 

We  are  all  familiar  with  the  scenes  in  our  community 
on  election  day.  We  have  seen  the  busy  polling  places 
where  the  voters  come  to  take  part  in  the  election.  We 
have  all  of  us  heard  our  parents  and  older  members  of  the 
community  talking  about  the  elections,  and  we  have 
probably  felt  ourselves  to  be  Republicans  or  Democrats, 
or  of  some  other  political  party.  Of  course  we  know  now 
that  our  reason  for  feeling  so  strongly,  one  way  or  the  other, 
was  because  the  grown  folks  with  whom  we  lived  favored 
one  party  or  the  other.  There  was  a  time  when  one  in- 
herited his  political  belief  just  as  he  did  his  name.  There 
are  to-day  many  people  who  are  Democrats  or  Republi- 
cans, just  because  their  fathers  or  grandfathers  were  of 
that  political  belief  before  them.  Many  people  are,  how- 
ever, coming  to  see  that  the  problems  of  fifty  or  a  hundred 
years  ago  are  not  the  problems  of  to-day.  What  is  needed 
is  not  the  blind  following  of  a  name  but  the  understanding 
of  the  condition  and  needs  of  the  country. 

Our  first  great  national  parties,  the  Federalist  and  the 
Anti-federalist,  grew  out  of  conflicting  views  as  to  how 
the  new  national  Constitution  should  be  interpreted.  While 
there  were  many  other  questions  to  be  solved,  this  one  was 
for  the  time  being  the  most  important.     So  it  was  that 


PARTY  GOVERNMENT  AND   CIVIL  SERVICE  333 

there  grew  up  two  great  parties  around  which  the  people 
flocked,  the  one  standing  for  a  strict  and  the  other  for  a 
loose  interpretation  of  the  Constitution.  From  time  to 
time  other  matters  of  great  interest  have  come  up  before 
the  country.  Slavery,  the  high  protective  tariff,  free  silver, 
and  many  other  issues  have  been  of  such  importance  as  to 
be  the  one  great  idea  in  the  minds  of  the  people.  If  we 
were  to  follow  these  issues  through  our  histories,  and  also 
the  political  parties  which  stood  for  one  side  or  the  other, 
we  would  find  that  the  two  old  parties,  Federalist  and  Anti- 
federalist,  have  under  different  names  continued  down 
until  the  present  time.  Of  course  there  have  been  many 
other  parties  which  have  arisen  to  support  some  special 
idea,  such  as  prohibition,  but  it  is  seldom  that  they  have 
ever  become  the  dominating  party.  The  reason  for  this 
is  that  just  as  soon  as  the  idea  for  which  the  third  party  is 
standing  becomes  so  important  that  it  looks  as  if  it  were 
going  to  become  one  of  the  questions  upon  which  the  elec- 
tions might  be  decided,  the  two  principal  parties  adopt 
the  idea  as  their  own.  Of  course  the  existence  of  the 
third  party  has  been  largely  responsible  for  this  being  done, 
and  so  its  usefulness  can  be  justified.  Another  change  which 
is  also  likely  to  happen  is  that  the  growth  of  an  idea  may  so 
dominate  the  country  that  the  very  nature,  leaders,  and  pol- 
icies of  an  existing  party  may  be  changed.  The  party  then 
remains  still  one  of  the  two  great  parties  of  the  country. 
There  are  some  people  who  believe  that  there  can  never 
be  more  than  two  great  political  parties  in  the  country. 

There  is,  underlying  every  political  party,  some  domi- 
nating idea   upon  which  the  followers  of  the  party  are 


334  A   SELF-GOVERNING   COMMUNITY 

agreed.  In  the  case  of  the  nation  this  must  be  a  question 
of  nation-wide  importance,  and  big  enough  to  overshadow 
all  other  ideas.  If  the  people  who  hold  to  this  particular 
idea  want  to  see  it  become  a  policy  of  the  national  govern- 
ment, it  is  necessary  that  they  send  to  Congress  a  sufficient 
number  of  representatives  who  will  make  the  laws  neces- 
sary to  put  it  into  effect.  That  is,  they  must  make  sure 
that  they  have  in  Congress  a  majority  of  the  members 
who  favor  the  laws  which  they  desire.  Then,  too,  it  is 
necessary  that  there  be  in  the  presidential  chair  a  man  who 
is  in  sympathy  with  this  idea,  and  who  will  make  every 
effort  to  see  that  it  becomes  a  part  of  the  law,  and  that  it  is 
enforced  after  it  becomes  a  law.  If  this  is  to  be  accom- 
plished the  people  of  the  nation  who  hold  to  this  particular 
idea  must  put  aside  individual  preferences  and  unite  in 
their  efforts  to  elect  a  President  who  will  favor  their  point 
of  view.  In  each  state  and  congressional  district  there 
must  be  the  same  working  together  to  elect  Senators  and 
Representatives  who  will  act  in  accord  with  this  plan. 
It  is  impossible  for  the  people  who  hold  the  same  political 
views  to  come  together  and  decide  who  shall  represent 
them  and  formulate  their  policy  of  government.  It  is 
necessary  therefore  that  they  organize  themselves  in  such 
a  way  that  the  principles  for  which  they  stand  may  be 
so  expressed  as  to  represent  the  feeling  of  the  whole,  and 
that  the  candidates  for  the  various  offices  be  so  selected 
as  to  insure  the  selection  of  the  right  people  to  represent 
them.  The  campaign  for  the  election  of  their  candidates 
must  be  also  planned  and  carried  out.  This  means  that 
machinery   for  doing  all   this  must  be   built  up.      Such 


PARTY   GOVERNMENT  AND   CIVIL  SERVICE  335 

machinery  is  called   a  political  party,  and  it  is  through 
such  political  parties  that  our  country  is  governed. 

PARTY  ORGANIZATION 

Committees.  —  We  have  probably  seen  an  election  in 
progress.  We  know  that  the  voters  who  come  to  the 
polling  place  nearest  our  homes  are  all  from  our  own  im- 
mediate neighborhood.  The  area  in  which  these  voters 
live  is  called  an  election  district  or  precinct.  There  may 
be  almost  any  number  of  voters  in  the  district  from  just  a 
few  up  to  three  or  four  hundred.  They  probably  repre- 
sent almost  all  of  the  political  parties.  We  know  that  even 
our  next  door  neighbor  may  be  of  a  different  political 
belief  from  ourselves. 

Local.  —  Usually  the  voters  of  each  party  in  the  pre- 
cinct select  two  members  of  their  own  party  to  look  after 
the  party  interests  in  the  precinct.  The  precinct  com- 
mitteemen of  the  ward  constitute  the  ward  committee. 
Each  ward  committee  in  turn  selects  members  to  repre- 
sent it  on  the  city  or  county  committee.  In  other  words, 
there  will  be  a  precinct,  a  ward,  a  city,  a  county  committee, 
for  each  political  party.  The  local  committees  try  to 
keep  up  the  interest  of  the  voters  in  their  party.  They 
work  up  the  vote  for  their  own  candidates,  and  on  elec- 
tion day  try  to  get  all  the  voters  of  their  party  to  go  to  the 
polls.  The  ward,  city,  or  county  committees  look  after 
the  general  interests  of  the  party  in  the  wider  area,  and 
determine  largely  the  policy  of  the  party  in  matters  per- 
taining to  the  local  community.     They  are   also   instru- 


336  A   SELF-GOVERNING   COMMUNITY 

mental  in  determining  who  shall  be  the  candidates  for  the 
various  offices  at  the  elections. 

State.  —  Above  the  county  committee  we  find  the  state 
committee,  usually  composed  of  members  from  each  county 
or  senatorial  district.  This  committee  deals  with  po- 
litical matters  of  state-wide  importance.  It  keeps  closely 
in  touch  with  the  political  situation  in  the  several  counties 
and  lends  aid  when  there  is  likely  to  be  a  close  contest 
in  any  given  county.  It  plays  an  important  part  in  de- 
termining the  state  political  policy  and  in  selecting  the 
candidates  for  the  various  state  offices. 

National.  —  Every  national  political  party  has  its  na- 
tional committee.  This  committee  is  made  up  of  one  mem- 
ber from  each  state.  The  state  representative  on  the 
national  committee  is  usually  the  strongest  political  power 
in  the  state.  The  national  committee  deals  with  matters 
of  national  importance.  It  directs  the  national  nomi- 
nating convention  at  which  the  candidates  of  the  party 
for  the  offices  of  President  and  Vice-President  are  selected 
and  the  party  platform  made  up. 

National  Nominating  Convention.  —  Once  in  every 
four  years  the  national  political  parties  hold  what  is  known 
as  the  national  nominating  convention.  To  these  con- 
ventions each  political  party  sends  a  number  of  repre- 
sentatives equal  to  twice  the  representation  which  the 
state  has  in  Congress.  Each  party  holds  its  own  national 
convention.  A  large  city  is  usually  selected  as  the  scene 
for  the  convention.     The  delegates,  with  their  flags  and 


Copyright,  Underwood  and  Underwood 

A  National  Nominating  Convention 


3$&  A   SELF-GOVERNING   COMMUNITY 

banners,  together  with  the  great  crowds  which  are  usually 
attracted,  form  a  most  interesting  and  exciting  sight. 
Many  of  the  states'  representatives  come  prepared  to  boost 
some  favorite  son  for  the  nomination.  The  convention 
usually  runs  for  three  or  four  days  while  one  after  another 
of  the  candidates  is  eliminated  from  the  race.  By  the 
close  of  the  convention,  however,  the  candidates  for  the 
office  of  President  and  Vice-President  have  been   chosen. 

Party  Platform.  —  In  addition  to  the  nominating  of 
the  candidates  for  the  presidency  and  vice-presidency, 
the  national  convention  draws  up  the  party  platform. 
This  is  a  document  in  which  the  party  tells  what  it  believes 
in  and  stands  for,  and  what  it  promises  to  do  if  it  is  put 
into  power  at  the  coming  elections.  There  is  of  course 
the  statement  of  the  standing  of  the  party  on  the  main 
issue  of  the  campaign,  and  also  its  attitude  toward  many 
other  problems  which  are  of  national  importance.  These 
various  items  are  spoken  of  as  the  planks  of  the  platform. 
Unfortunately,  at  times,  some  planks  are  put  into  the  plat- 
form with  the  sole  object  of  drawing  votes  and  with  no 
intention  on  the  part  of  the  leaders  to  have  the  pledges 
carried  out. 

Before  adjourning,  the  members  of  the  national  com- 
mittee are  selected  by  the  various  state  delegations  for  the 
next  four  years. 

Political  Clubs.  —  The  political  club  plays  an  important 
part  in  the  political  life  of  most  communities.  Com- 
posed of  the  voters  who  are  usually  most  interested  in  the 
politics  of  the  community,  they  form  a  place  of  close  con- 


PARTY  GOVERNMENT  AND   CIVIL  SERVICE  339 

tact  between  the  voter  and  the  political  worker.  Then, 
too,  in  the  campaigns  preceding  the  election,  the  political 
spirit  of  the  community  is  sensed  in  this  manner.  The 
club  often  plays  an  important  part  in  keeping  things  stirred 
up  and  interest  alive  in  the  coming  election. 

The  Campaign.  —  Preceding  every  election  there  is 
always  a  campaign  to  interest  the  voters  and  to  try  to  se- 
cure more  votes.  In  former  times  this  was  often  a  source 
of  much  excitement  to  the  community.  There  would  be 
night  parades,  with  an  abundance  of  red  fire  and  other 
fireworks,  followed  by  political  meetings,  often  in  the  open 
air,  at  which  the  party  orators  would  endeavor  to  per- 
suade the  voters  of  the  righteousness  of  their  party's  cause 
and  the  quality  of  their  candidates.  While  there  is  still 
'  some  of  this  older  method  used,  for  the  most  part  the  cam- 
paigning is  carried  on  through  the  newspapers.  As  people 
become  more  and  more  intelligent,  attempts  to  influence 
their  votes  through  exciting  methods  become  of  less  im- 
portance, and  the  effort  is  made  to  show  by  an  appeal 
to  their  intelligence  that  certain  issues  are  best  decided  in 
certain  ways  and  that  particular  candidates  are  best  fitted 
to  carry  out  the  wishes  of  the  people. 

SUGGESTIONS   FOR  FURTHER  STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION 

1.  What  were  the  issues  of  the  most  recent  election  in  your  com- 
munity? How  many  people  and  how  much  of  the  country  did  they 
affect? 

2.  Find  the  names  of  the  committeemen  of  each  of  the  political 
parties  in  your  precinct.  If  any  boy  or  girl  happens  to  be  related  to  or 
acquainted  with  one  of  them,  find  out  what  you  can  about  the  organ- 
ization of  the  political  work  in  your  ward  and  city. 


34°  A   SELF-GOVERNING   COMMUNITY 

3.  Whom  do  we  usually  find  most  interested  in  the  political  work  of 
our  community?    Who  should  be  interested? 

4.  Why  is  it  the  duty  of  every  citizen  to  keep  in  touch  with  the 
workers  of  the  party  which  most  closely  represents  his  views  ? 

5.  What  effect  would  it  have  on  the  political  life  of  the  community 
if  every  one  were  interested  enough  to  work  for  the  cause  he  believed 
to  be  right? 

6.  Find  out  all  you  can  about  the  organization  of  your  state  com- 
mittees.    Which  member  represents  the  people  of  your  district? 

7.  What  are  the  names  of  the  men  who  represent  your  state  on  the 
national  committees  ? 

8.  If  possible  secure  copies  of  newspapers  giving  the  account  of  the 
most  recent  presidential  nominating  convention. 

9.  Secure  copies  of  the  party  platforms  of  each  of  the  political  parties. 
To  what  extent  has  the  party  now  in  power  lived  up  to  its  promises  in 
the  last  platform? 

ELECTION  MACHINERY 

Election  day  is  the  great  day  toward  which  all  party 
organizations  look.  It  would  little  matter  how  splendidly 
organized  the  followers  of  a  political  party  were,  if,  when 
election  day  came  around,  their  voters  did  not  go  to  the 
polls  and  cast  their  ballots  for  the  candidates  of  their 
party.  Party  machinery  is  the  outgrowth  of  the  popular 
election  system  of  the  country.  Let  us  see  who  the  voters 
are  and  what  they  do. 

Suffrage.  —  Suffrage,  or  the  right  of  voting,  has  been 
left  by  the  Constitution  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  states. 
The  first  restriction  which  was  placed  on  the  states  was 
made  by  the  fourteenth  amendment  to  the  Constitution, 
which  provided  that  if  any  state  were  to  deny  the  right  to 
vote  at  any  election  for  the  choice  of  electors  for  Presi- 
dent and  Vice-President,  and  certain  other  national  and 


PARTY  GOVERNMENT  AND   CIVIL  SERVICE  341 

state  officials,  the  representation  of  that  state  should  be 
proportionately  reduced  in  Congress.  This  was  followed 
by  the  fifteenth  amendment,  which  asserted  that  the  right 
of  citizens  of  the  United  States  to  vote  should  not  be  denied 
or  abridged,  because  of  M  race,  color,  or  previous  condi- 
tion of  servitude."  There  is  at  the  present  time  an  amend- 
ment before  the  country  which  when  it  has  been  passed 
by  three-fourths  of  the  states  will  become  the  nineteenth 
amendment.  It  gives  the  right  of  suffrage  to  the  women 
of  the  country.  Many  of  the  states  already  grant  full  or 
partial  suffrage  to  women. 

An  age  requirement  of  twenty-one  years  is  held  in  all 
the  states.  Citizenship  is  necessary  in  almost  all  of  the 
states,  although  some  allow  an  alien  who  has  declared  his 
intention  of  becoming  a  citizen  to  vote  in  certain  elections. 
Most  of  the  states  require  certain  residence  qualifications 
in  state  and  election  district.  This  prevents  the  importing 
of  voters  from  other  sections  for  the  purpose  of  carrying 
an  election  by  fraud.  In  certain  states  an  educational 
qualification  is  required. 

Personal  Registration.  —  Because  of  the  large  numbers 
of  voters  in  a  district  and  the  shifting  of  the  population  it 
is  a  rather  difficult  matter  for  the  election  officials  to  know 
all  the  voters  of  a  district,  especially  in  our  large  cities. 
This  has  made  possible  quite  a  little  fraudulent  voting, 
which  is  called  repeating.  This  means  that  a  person  goes 
from  one  polling  place  to  another  and  votes  at  each  one 
under  an  assumed  name.  In  order  to  overcome  this  prac- 
tice we  find  in  some  of  our  states  that  the  election  laws  re- 


342  A   SELF-GOVERNING   COMMUNITY 

quire  personal  registration  of  the  voters.  On  a  certain  set 
day  all  those  who  desire  to  vote  at  an  election  must  ap- 
pear in  person  before  the  registrars  of  the  district  and 
answer  certain  questions.  These  answers,  together  with  a 
description  of  the  voter  and  his  signature,  are  recorded 
in  a  book  made  for  this  purpose.  At  the  time  of  the  elec- 
tion it  is  possible  to  identify  each  voter,  and  if  necessary 
to  require  that  he  prove  his  identity  by  means  of  his  signa- 
ture. 

Party  Enrollment.  —  In  order  to  select  from  the  many 
applicants  the  candidates  who  are  to  represent  the  various 
parties  at  the  election,  a  primary  election  is  held.  We 
shall  describe  this  more  fully  in  a  later  paragraph.  At 
this  election,  the  members  of  each  party  vote  on  their  own 
party  ballots  for  the  candidates  whom  they  desire  to  select. 
Unless  there  were  some  restriction  it  would  be  very  easy  for 
the  members  of  an  opposing  party  to  ask  for  the  ballots  of 
their  opponents  and  to  vote  for  candidates  who  could  not 
possibly  be  elected  if  they  were  to  be  placed  on  the  ballot 
at  the  general  election.  This  trick  is  called  swamping  the 
other  party.  To  prevent  this,  the  voter  who  desires  to 
vote  for  candidates  for  other  than  non-partisan  offices, 
such  as  judges,  is  required  to  enroll  at  the  time  of  registra- 
tion. He  must  then  state,  should  he  care  to  vote  at  the 
primaries  for  candidates  of  a  certain  party,  that  he  desires 
to  be  enrolled  with  that  party.  In  this  way  swamping  is 
prevented. 

Nominations.  —  In  the  United  States  any  citizen  is 
eligible  to  public  office  if  he  fulfils  certain  qualifications. 


PARTY  GOVERNMENT  AND   CIVIL  SERVICE  343 

There  is  one  restriction  on  this  in  the  case  of  the  Presidency 
and  Vice-Presidency,  in  which  one  must  be  a  natural-born 
citizen  of  the  country.  Formerly  the  various  parties  se- 
lected their  candidates  for  office  by  means  of  a  caucus  or 
convention.  A  caucus  was  a  private  meeting  of  members 
of  a  political  party  for  the  purpose  of  selecting  candidates. 
Usually  this  consisted  of  the  meeting  of  the  political  leaders, 
who  made  the  choice.  The  convention  we  have  just  de- 
scribed in  telling  of  the  nomination  of  the  President  and 
Vice-President. 

Nomination  Petition.  —  In  many  of  the  states  to-day 
we  find  that  nominations  of  candidates  for  the  primary 
elections  are  made  by  petition.  That  is,  the  name  of  any 
citizen  who  possesses  the  necessary  qualifications  will  be 
placed  on  the  ballot,  provided  a  petition  to  that  effect 
has  been  signed  by  a  certain  number  of  friends  or 
supporters.  The  number  of  signatures  required  varies  with 
the  office,  a  few  only  being  required  for  some  local  position, 
while  a  thousand  or  more  are  required  for  more  important 
city  and  state  offices.  This  petition  is  then  filed  with  the 
county  or  state  officials  in  charge,  according  to  whether 
the  office  is  local  or  state.  All  properly  qualified  citizens 
nominated  in  this  manner  from  whom  the  party  voters  are 
to  select  their  candidates,  have  their  names  printed  on  the 
primary  ballot. 

Primary  Election.  —  At  some  time  before  the  general 
election,  a  primary  election  is  held  for  the  purpose  of  nomi- 
nating candidates  who  are  to  represent  the  various  parties 


344  A   SELF-GOVERNING   COMMUNITY 

at  the  coming  elections.  This  election  is  held  in  the  regu- 
lar polling  place,  and  is  conducted  in  the  same  manner  as  a 
regular  election,  except  that  each  voter,  as  we  have  seen, 
receives  the  ballot  of  the  party  for  whose  candidates  he  is 
eligible  to  vote.  This  has  been  determined  by  his  enroll- 
ment at  the  time  of  registration.  The  ballot  which  he 
receives  contains  the  names  of  all  the  candidates  for  the 
nomination  to  the  various  offices  for  which  the  party  is  to 
nominate  for  the  coming  elections.  After  the  polls  have 
been  closed  the  election  officials  count  the  votes.  The  name 
of  the  successful  candidate  for  each  office  in  each  party  is 
now  ready  to  be  placed  on  the  ballot  for  the  general  election. 
Occasionally,  when  a  considerable  number  of  citizens 
are  dissatisfied  with  the  results  of  the  primary  nomina- 
tions, a  new  party  will  be  formed  under  a  new  name  and 
with  candidates  who  were  not  nominated  at  the  primaries. 
This  is  done  by  means  of  petition.  It  is  usually  necessary 
for  the  petition  to  have  the  signatures  of  a  certain  per  cent 
of  the  voters  at  the  last  general  election. 

General  Election.  —  Elections  for  President  are  always 
held  on  the  Tuesday  after  the  first  Monday  of  November 
every  fourth  year  as,  1 91 6,  1920,  1924.  Practically  every 
state  chooses  its  representatives  to  Congress  and  its  state 
officers  at  this  election.  By  choosing  county  and  city  offi- 
cers in  the  following  year,  then  state  officers  and  congress- 
men the  next,  the  county  and  city  the  next,  and  on  the 
fourth  year  repeating  the  Presidential  election,  city  and 
county  politics  are  kept  separate  from  state  and  national 
politics,  as  they  should  be. 


PARTY  GOVERNMENT  AND   CIVIL  SERVICE  345 

The  polling  places  are  usually  located  with  reference  to 
the  convenience  of  the  voters.  The  district  or  neighbor- 
hood from  which  the  voters  come  is  often  spoken  of  as  a 
precinct.  At  the  polling  place  we  find  the  election  officials. 
There  is  always  a  judge  of  the  election,  and  two  or  more 
inspectors  and  clerks.  In  addition  to  these  officers  we  find 
that  each  party  is  represented  by  watchers,  who  check  off 
the  name  of  each  voter  as  he  appears.  If  they  believe  that 
a  voter  is  not  qualified  to  vote  they  challenge  him.  The 
record  made  at  the  time  of  registration  is  then  checked  up 
and  the  voter  required  to  prove  that  he  is  entitled  to  vote. 
After  he  has  been  properly  identified,  he  receives  a  ballot, 
which  he  carries  into  a  booth,  where,  protected  from  the 
view  of  observers,  he  marks  his  ballot  in  secret,  indicating 
by  means  of  a  cross  the  party  or  the  candidates  for  whom 
he  desires  to  cast  his  vote.  He  then  comes  out  of  the 
booth  and  deposits  his  folded  and  secret  ballot  in  the 
ballot-box.  In  some  states  ballots  are  so  arranged  that  it 
is  possible  to  vote  for  all  the  candidates  of  any  given  party 
by  marking  a  single  cross  in  the  square  before  the  name  of 
the  party  for  whose  candidates  one  desires  to  vote.  Another 
form  of  ballot  has  all  the  names  of  the  candidates  for  a 
certain  office  grouped  together,  so  that  each  office  must  be 
voted  for  separately.  This  requires  that  the  voter  read  his 
ballot  more  carefully  and  encourages  independent  and 
intelligent  voting.  In  a  few  places  we  find  voting  ma- 
chines in  use.  These  resemble  somewhat  a  cash  register, 
the  names  of  the  candidates  being  printed  on  small  slips 
of  paper,  and  arranged  on  the  various  levers.  By  pressing 
down  on  the  levers  bearing  the  names  of  the  candidates 


PARTY   GOVERNMENT  AND    CIVIL   SERVICE 


347 


for  whom  one  desires  to  vote,  a  vote  is  automatically  reg- 
istered. The  machine  is  so  constructed  that  it  is  possible 
to  vote  for  but  one  candidate  for  each  office.  It  acts  also 
as  an  adding  machine,  so  that  the  total  of  the  votes  cast  is 
available  the  minute  the  polls  close. 

Counting  the  Vote.  —  After  the  polls  have  closed  for 
the  day,  the  ballots  are  removed  from  the  boxes  into  which 
they  have  been  placed,  and  the  votes  received  by  each 
candidate  are  recorded  on  a  tally  sheet.  Where  the  officer 
elected  is  voted  for  only  by  the  voters  of  the  precinct, 
the  result  of  the  election  is  known  as  soon  as  the  ballots 
are  all  counted.  In  the  case  of  a  presidential  election, 
however,  all  the  votes  for  the  electors  for  the  state  must 
be  in  before  we  are  sure  of  just  how  the  state  will  go  in  the 
election.  The  newspapers,  by  watching  the  doubtful 
states  as  they  are  called,  where  either  party  may  win, 
and  by  counting  certain  states  as  being  sure  for  one  side 
or  the  other,  often  predict  the  election  of  the  candidates  for 
a  certain  party  before  midnight  of  the  election  night.  There 
are,  however,  times  when  a  number  of  days  pass  before 
the  result  is  surely  known.  In  fact,  in  a  recent  election, 
the  candidate  for  one  party  was  announced  in  the  papers 
as  the  winner,  only  to  learn  after  a  day  or  two  that  one 
doubtful  state  had  given  the  election  to  his  opponent. 
We  should  notice  in  passing  that  the  voters  do  not  vote 
directly  for  the  President,  but  for  Presidential  electors, 
who,  in  turn,  assemble  some  weeks  later,  usually  at  the  state 
capital  of  each  state,  and  vote  as  they  have  been  instructed. 
The  counting  of  the  electoral  votes  is  done  by  Congress. 


348  A   SELF-GOVERNING  COMMUNITY 

Long  before  this,  however,  the  people  know  who  is  to  be 
the  next  President. 

The  Recall. — Just  as  it  is  possible  for  the  various  parties 
to  nominate  their  candidates  by  petition,  so  it  is  also  pos- 
sible in  states  where  the  recall  exists  for  the  voters  to  get 
rid  of  an  undesirable  official.  This  is  done  by  presenting 
to  the  election  officials  a  petition  requesting  that  an  election 
be  held  to  decide  whether  or  not  the  present  official  should 
remain  in  office.  The  chief  advantage  of  the  recall  seems 
to  be  that  where  it  is  in  force  there  is  seldom,  if  ever,  any 
need  for  using  it,  as  the  possibility  of  its  being  used  is 
sufficient  to  produce  the  desired  results. 

The  Short  Ballot.  —  If  we  were  to  examine  the  ballot 
which  is  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  voter  on  election  day, 
we  would  realize  what  a  complicated  thing  it  really  is. 
There  are  usually  so  many  offices  to  be  filled  and  so  many 
candidates  for  each  office,  that  the  ballot  must  of  necessity 
be  very  large.  In  fact,  it  is  sometimes  spoken  of  as  a 
11  blanket  ballot."  Often  it  is  as  large  as  two  extended 
pages  of  a  large  city  newspaper.  Of  the  many  names  on 
the  ballot,  even  the  best-informed  voter  could  scarcely 
be  expected  to  know  but  a  few.  Usually  what  happens 
is  that  one  or  two  of  the  candidates  for  the  highest  offices 
to  be  filled  are  known,  either  because  of  something  they 
have  done,  or  because  of  newspaper  publicity.  Sometimes 
the  voter  knows  only  the  party  names  which  appear.  This 
means  that  the  average  voter  votes  for  the  great  majority 
of  the  candidates  blindly.  Such  a  system  of  selection  may 
not  result  in  the  choice  of  the  best  man  for  the  office. 


PARTY  GOVERNMENT  AND   CIVIL  SERVICE  349 

In  order  to  overcome  this  difficulty  we  find  that  the 
short  ballot  is  gradually  being  adopted  over  the  country. 
Instead  of  having  the  "  blanket  ballot,"  with  its  hundred 
or  more  of  candidates,  the  ballot  contains  the  names  of 
the  candidates  for  only  the  most  important  offices.  By 
reducing  the  number  of  names  on  the  ballot  the  voter  is 
better  able  to  make  a  study  of  the  candidates  and  vote  for 
the  ones  who  in  his  judgment  are  best  qualified  for  the 
offices.  Positions  of  less  importance,  it  has  been  found, 
are  much  better  filled  when  the  individual  ability  of  the 
candidate  for  the  place  is  considered.  These  offices  then 
are  filled  by  appointment,  the  fitness  of  the  candidates 
being  determined  by  civil  service  examinations. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY    AND    DISCUSSION 

1.  What  provisions  do  we  find  in  the  Constitution  in  regard  to  the 
right  to  vote? 

2.  What  are  the  voting  qualifications  in  your  state  ? 

3.  If  personal  registration  is  required  in  your  state,  find  out  just 
what  questions  are  asked  by  the  registrars.  It  would  be  interesting 
to  plan  at  this  point  to  have  an  election  in  the  class.  The  first  step 
would  be  that  of  registering  the  pupils.  The  same  questions  might 
be  used  as  in  the  case  of  regular  registration.  After  the  other  steps 
in  the  process  of  elections  have  been  discussed  each  one  might  be  acted 
out  by  the  class,  including  the  election  by  ballot  of  class  officers. 

4.  Find  out  from  a  political  worker  how  nominations  for  minor 
city  offices  are  made.  What  part  does  the  committee  take  in  this 
work? 

5.  Secure  copies  of  specimen  ballots  from  recent  elections.  What 
type  of  ballot  is  used  in  your  state? 

6.  Make  a  map  of  your  precinct  showing  the  location  of  the  polling 
place. 

7.  Explain  the  method  by  which  the  President  of  the  United  States 
is  elected. 


35©  A   SELF-GOVERNING  COMMUNITY 

CIVIL  SERVICE 

The  carrying  on  of  the  work  of  the  government  in  city, 
state,  and  nation  involves  the  use  of  the  services  of  many 
thousands  of  persons  who  are  not  elected  to  their  posi- 
tions, but  appointed  by  officials  who  have  been  elected  by 
the  people.  Out  of  the  abuse  of  this  power  of  appointing, 
arose  the  "  spoils  system."  By  this  is  meant  that  the 
newly  elected  officials  to  public  office  regard  the  posi- 
tions of  the  workers  in  the  various  departments  of  gov- 
ernment as  spoils  of  war.  There  are  thousands  of  clerk- 
ships, positions  as  postmaster,  and  so  forth,  with  which 
they  may  reward  those  who  voted  for  their  election.  For 
many  years  the  policy  was  to  discharge  from  office  great 
numbers  of  such  workers  who  did  not  belong  to  the  party 
which  had  just  gotten  into  power,  and  to  appoint  in  their 
stead  its  own  friends  and  political  workers.  This  is 
spoken  of  as  patronage.  It  gives  to  the  elective  official 
a  means  of  controlling  the  votes  of  all  these  appointed 
people  and  helps  them  to  keep  themselves  in  political 
office. 

The  ability  of  a  man  as  a  policeman,  a  fireman,  a  sten- 
ographer, a  bookkeeper,  a  building  inspector,  a  postman, 
or  what  not,  certainly  can  not  be  measured  by  his  partic- 
ular political  faith.  These  duties  have  to  do  with  one's 
business  ability  and  training,  and  if  the  community  is  to 
be  well  served  in  such  matters,  only  the  ability  of  the 
candidate  or  the  office-holder  should  be  considered.  It 
is  only  when  we  recognize  that  the  business  of  running  a 
government,  be  it  city,  state,  or  nation,  is  a  business,  and 


PARTY  GOVERNMENT  AND   CIVIL   SERVICE         351 

should  be  conducted  on  business  principles,  that  we  shall 
get  the  best  possible  kind  of  government. 

City  Civil  Service.  —  Many  of  our  large  cities  have 
removed  the  majority  of  positions  requiring  especial 
training  or  fitness  from  the  hands  of  appointing  officials 
and  placed  them  under  civil  service.  We  usually  find  a 
civil  service  commission  selected  in  such  manner  as  the 
law  directs.  This  commission  is  really  the  employment 
bureau  of  the  city,  and  looks  after  the  needs  of  the  city 
just  as  such  a  bureau  would  look  after  the  interests  of 
any  private  business  concern.  The  commission  prescribes 
the  examination  which  is  to  be  taken  by  the  applicants 
for  any  position.  There  may  be  a  physical,  as  well  as 
a  mental,  examination  required.  The  experience  and 
training  which  the  applicants  have  had  is  considered, 
and  at  times  a  practical  test  is  given  to  see  whether  the 
claims  which  the  applicant  has  made  are  true.  In  filling 
certain  positions,  requiring  expert  knowledge  and  ex- 
perience, the  applicants  prepare  at  their  homes  the  papers 
which  they  are  to  submit,  and  send  them  to  the  commis- 
sion. Books  and  scientific  articles  by  candidates  may 
thus  be  examined.  In  this  way  the  city  is  sometimes 
able  to  secure  the  services  of  an  expert  in  a  certain  line, 
who  is  living  in  another  part  of  the  country,  and  who 
would  not  be  able  to  come  to  take  an  examination,  but 
who  would  come  to  fill  a  position  if  awarded  the  place. 
The  applicants  are  given  their  ratings  by  the  examiners 
of  the  civil  service  commission.  The  names  of  all  suc- 
cessful candidates  are  then  placed  upon  an  eligible  list 


352  A   SELF-GOVERNING   COMMUNITY 

from  which  appointments  are  made.  Such  appointments 
are  usually  on  probation.  That  is,  the  position  is  not 
made  permanent  for  a  number  of  months,  during  which  time 
the  applicant  has  the  opportunity  to  prove  his  fitness  or 
unfitness  for  the  place. 

National  Civil  Service.  —  There  are  now  over  five  hun- 
dred thousand  persons  in  the  national  public  service,  more 
than  two-thirds  of  which  number  had  to  pass  civil  service 
examinations  before  becoming  eligible  for  appointment. 
The  offices  which  are  filled  by  competitive  examinations 
are  designated  by  the  President.  The  civil  service  act  of 
1883,  which  organized  the  Civil  Service  Commission,  re- 
moved from  the  President  a  tremendous  burden  and  re- 
sponsibility. To-day  fourth-class  postmasters,  letter  car- 
riers, railway  mail  clerks,  postal  clerks,  clerks  in  all  the 
government  departments  at  Washington,  in  fact  practi- 
cally all  appointees  who  require  special  knowledge  and 
skill  are  appointed  only  after  competitive  examination. 

The  Civil  Service  Commission  consists  of  three  members, 
appointed  by  the  President.  There  are  also  a  chief  exam- 
iner and  assistant  clerks.  Provision  is  made  that  the 
commissioners  must  not  all  belong  to  the  same  political 
party.  Under  direction  of  the  commission  examinations 
are  given  whenever  there  is  a  vacancy  or  need  for  addi- 
tional assistance.  The  appointment  is  made  from  the 
highest  names  on  the  list  of  successful  applicants. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  FURTHER  STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION 

1.  Secure  literature  advertising  coming  civil  service  examinations. 

2.  If  possible  secure  copies  of  questions  asked  at  recent  examina- 


PARTY  GOVERNMENT  AND   CIVIL  SERVICE  353 

tion  for  positions  with  the  local  government.     What  school  subjects 
would  help  you  to  pass  these  examinations? 

3.  What  is  meant  by  the  "  spoils  system  "  ?  By  whom  was  it  first 
introduced?  What  evil  effects  did  it  have?  What  incident  marked 
the  turning  point  for  the  present  civil  service  reform? 

4.  What  offices  which  are  now  elective  would  in  your  judgment  be 
better  filled  if  they  were  to  be  made  appointive  under  competitive  ex- 
amination ? 


THE   LOYAL   CITIZEN 

CHAPTER  XXII 
AMERICAN  IDEALS   AND   CITIZENSHIP 

It  has  ever  been  a  wonderful  privilege  to  be  an  Ameri- 
can citizen.  From  the  earliest  days  of  American  inde- 
pendence, men  and  women  have  been  willing  to  serve, 
sacrifice,  and  if  need  be,  to  lay  down  their  lives,  that  the 
principles  of  freedom  for  which  our  nation  has  stood  might 
be  maintained.  A  glorious  history  lies  behind  us.  For 
nearly  a  century  and  a  half,  America  has  stood  for  liberty 
before  all  the  world,  and  as  a  refuge  for  the  oppressed  of 
every  land.  To-day  she  has  taken  her  place,  first  among 
the  great  nations  of  the  world.  /We  are  her  sons  and 
daughters,  her  citizens,  and  into  our  h#nds  have  fallen  the 
duties  and  responsibilities  of  citizenship.  Are  we  going 
to  prove  ourselves  worthy  of  so  great  a  trust? 

In  ancient  Athens,  the  young  Athenian,  assuming  the 
duties  of  citizenship,  took  a  solemn  oath  that  he  would 
bring  no  disgrace  to  his  city,  and  that  he  would  endeavor 
to  transmit  it  to  those  who  came  after  him,  greater,  and 
better,  and  more  beautiful  than  it  was  when  he  received 
it.  What  an  ideal  for  the  young  citizen  !  If  every  Ameri- 
can boy  and  girl  would  take  and  keep  such  a  pledge,  what 
a  wonderful  future  would  lie  before  us! 

354 


AMERICAN  IDEALS  AND   CITIZENSHIP  355 

In  the  charter  of  American  independence,  the  Declara- 
tion of  Independence,  we  read  that,  "  All  men  are  created 
equal,  and  are  endowed  by  their  Creator  with  certain  in- 
alienable rights  among  which  are  life,  liberty,  and  the  pur- 
suit of  happiness."  To  secure  the  independence  which 
was  necessary  for  the  realization  of  these  ideals,  our  fore- 
fathers fought  and  died.  To  perpetuate  that  independ- 
ence, and  pass  it  unsullied  to  their  children,  generation 
after  generation  have  toiled  and  served  and  sacrificed. 
We  who  are  living  to-day  have  seen  these  great  Ameri- 
can ideals  extended  until  they  have  reached  far  beyond 
the  boundaries  of  our  great  nation  and  have  been  realized 
in  our  service  to  our  sister  nations  who  were  struggling  for 
world  liberty  against  liberty's  most  dangerous  enemy. 

American  citizenship  carries  with  it  to-day  far  greater 
duties  and  responsibilities  than  ever  before.  The  very 
greatness  of  the  nation  makes  its  position  more  perilous.  '\ys 
The  nation  is  "  many  in  one,"  and  the  true  greatness 
of  the  nation  lies  in  the  strength  of  character  of  the  in- 
dividual citizen  who  makes  up  the  nation.  The  true  great- 
ness of  a  nation  is  not  to  be  measured  in  terms  of  material 
wealth.  Territory,  riches,  armament,  power,  are  but  the 
outward  signs.  It  is  in  the  character  of  the  individual 
citizen  that  we  find  the  real  measure  of  a  country's  worth. 
The  men  and  women,  boys  and  girls,  are  the  city,  the  state, 
and  the  nation.^ In  so  far  as  they  are  loyal  citizens,  liv- 
ing up  to  their  country's  ideals  to  the  best  of  their  ability, 
are  they  advancing  their  country's  interests  and  adding 
to  her  glory.     L 

The  nation  is  a  community  because  of  its  commonness 


356  THE  LOYAL   CITIZEN 

of  interests.  Binding  all  together,  above  the  interests 
in  the  elements  of  community  welfare,  is  the  loyalty  of  the 
citizens  to  the  purposes  and  ideals  for  which  the  nation 
stands.  It  is  this  which  eliminates  sectional  differences, 
which  wipes  out  boundaries,  so  that  the  whole  country 
is  one  in  thought  and  feeling.  In  a  time  of  great  national 
peril,  patriotism  runs  high.  Men  and  women  volunteer 
for  service  for  their  country.  Boys  and  girls  are  brim- 
ful of  patriotism,  and  fret  because  they  are  not  old  enough 
to  serve  in  their  country's  cause.  War  is  a  great  arouser 
of  that  deep  emotion,  love  of  country.  But  love  of  coun- 
try and  patriotism  are  just  as  needful  in  time  of  peace  as  in 
war.  In  fact,  it  sometimes  requires  deeper  love  of  country 
to  serve  in  the  quiet  walks  of  everyday  life,  than  when 
drum  and  trumpet  are  stirring  our  emotions.  There 
are  certain  things  which  every  boy  and  girl  may  do  which 
are  true  evidences  of  their  patriotism. 

Underlying  good  citizenship  is  the  cultivation  and  daily 
practice  of  those  civic  virtues  which  make  for  right  living 
and  right  relation  with  one's  fellows.  Obedience  to  parents 
and  those  in  authority  is  the  surest  way  of  proving  that 
one  has  those  traits  of  character  which  will  make  for  real 
leadership  in  later  life.  Kindliness,  courtesy,  helpful- 
ness, thoroughness,  punctuality,  truthfulness,  honesty, 
and  many  other  habits  which  we  may  cultivate  make 
living  with  our  fellows  smoother  and  happier,  and  are  a  sure 
way  of  proving  our  right  to  the  claim  of  good  citizenship. 

Then,  too,  the  good  citizen  is  the  one  who  serves  his 
community.  It  little  matters  in  what  line  of  endeavor 
we  may  be,  faithful,  honest  service  is  a  good  measure  of 


AMERICAN  IDEALS  AND   CITIZENSHIP  357 

our  citizenship.  It  may  be  the  faithful  preparation  of  our 
lessons,  it  may  be  the  spirit  of  fair  play  in  our  games,  but 
no  matter  how  it  is  made  evident  if  the  service  is  real, 
it  is  as  much  a  proof  of  our  loyalty  as  if  we  were  fighting 
in  the  army,  or  serving  our  country  in  some  position  of 
high  honor. 

The  good  citizen  also  always  pulls  with  his  fellows,  ]y/ 
not  against  them.  It  is  this  willingness  to  work  together, 
and  to  sacrifice  if  need  be  one's  personal  prejudices  or  de- 
sires for  the  welfare  of  the  group  that  marks  one  as  a 
worth-while  citizen.  We  must  recognize  that  we  are  each 
one  dependent  on  the  others  around  us,  and  that  it  is  only 
as  we  are  willing  to  co-operate  with  them  that  the  best 
interests  of  all  are  served. 

It  may  be  that  we  have  some  special  talent  which 
properly  trained  might  be  of  service  to  the  community, 
such  as  music,  or  skill  in  art,  or  an  ability  in  some  line 
of  school  work.  Whatever  it  is,  it  is  our  duty  to  develop 
such  talents  as  we  have  to  the  fullest  extent,  so  that  we 
may  be  able  to  serve  our  community  better.  There  will 
always  be  a  need  for  leaders  in  every  community,  —  men 
and  women  who  have  learned  to  think  for  themselves,  and 
who  have  the  interests  of  the  community  at  heart.  We 
should  keep  the  doors  of  opportunity  open,  taking  ad- 
vantage of  every  chance  to  improve  ourselves  so  that  we 
may  best  be  fitted  to  serve  our  fellows. 

We  are  proud  of  our  nation,  her  history,  and  her  achieve- 
ments. We  rejoice  to  be  the  heirs  to  such  a  wonderful 
land  and  to  such  glorious  liberties.  The  future  of  America 
is  in  our  hands.     How  we  profit  by  our  opportunities,  and 


358  THE  LOYAL   CITIZEN 

develop  our  character  through  loyal  service  and  co-opera- 
tion with  our  fellows,  will  largely  determine  the  America 
of  to-morrow.  Let  us  firmly  resolve  that  we  too  shall 
do  our  share,  and  that  the  boys  and  girls  who  come  after 
us  looking  to  us  as  examples  may  be  able  to  say,  as  we  say 
it  with  pride  and  love  of  country  in  our  hearts,  "  I  am 
an  American  citizen." 


APPENDIX  A 
THE   DECLARATION   OF   INDEPENDENCE 

IN   CONGRESS,   JULY  4,  1776 

The  following  preamble  and  specifications,  known  as  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence, accompanied  the  resolution  of  Richard  Henry  Lee,  which  was  adopted  by 
Congress  on  the  2d  day  of  July,  1776.  This  declaration  was  agreed  to  on  the  4th, 
and  the  transaction  is  thus  recorded  in  the  Journal  for  that  day : 

"Agreeably  to  the  order  of  the  day,  the  Congress  resolved  itself  into  a  committee 
of  the  whole,  to  take  into  their  further  consideration  the  Declaration  ;  and,  after 
some  time,  the  president  resumed  the  chair,  and  Mr.  Harrison  reported  that  the 
committee  had  agreed  to  a  Declaration,  which  they  desired  him  to  report.  The 
Declaration  being  read,  was  agreed  to  as  follows  :  " 

A   DECLARATION   BY  THE   REPRESENTATIVES   OF  THE  UNITED 
STATES  OF  AMERICA,  IN   CONGRESS   ASSEMBLED. 

When,  in  the  course  of  human  events,  it  becomes  necessary  for  one  people  to 
dissolve  the  political  bands  which  have  connected  them  with  another,  and  to  as- 
sume, among  the  powers  of  the  earth,  the  separate  and  equal  station  to  which  the 
laws  of  nature  and  of  nature's  God  entitle  them,  a  decent  respect  to  the  opinions 
of  mankind  requires  that  they  should  declare  the  causes  which  impel  them  to  the 
separation.  /  j»  \ 

We  hold  these  truths  to  be  self-evident — that  all  men  are  created  equal ;  that 
they  are  endowed  by  their  Creator  with  certain  inalienable  rights  ;  that  among  these 
are  life,  liberty,  and  the  pursuit  of  happijaess.  That,  to  secure  these  rights,  gov- 
ernments are  instituted  among  men,  derivmg  their  just  powers  from  the  consent  of 
the  governed ;  that,  whenever  any  form  of  government  becomes  destructive  of 
these  ends,  it  is  the  right  of  the  people  to  alter  or  abolish  it,  and  to  institufe'a  new 
government,  laying  its  foundations  on  such  principles,  and  organizing  its  powers 
in  such  form,  as  to  them  shall  seem  most  likely  to  effect  their  safety  and  happiness. 
Prudence,  indeed,  will  dictate,  that  governments  long  established  should  not  be 
changed  for  light  and  transient  causes  ;  and,  accordingly,  all  experience  hath  shown 
that  mankind  are  more  disposed  to  suffer,  while  evils  are  sufferable,  than  to  right 
themselves  by  abolishing  the  forms  to  which  they  are  accustomed.     But  when  a 

359 


360  APPENDIX  A 

long  train  of  abuses  and  usurpations,  pursuing  invariably  the  same  object,  evinces 
a  design  to  reduce  them  under  absolute  despotism,  it  is  their  right,  it  is  their  duty, 
to  throw  off  such  government,  and  to  provide  new  guards  for  their  future  security. 
Such  has  been  the  patient  sufferance  of  these  colonies,  and  such  is  now  the  necessity 
which  constrains  them  to  alter  their  former  systems  of  government.  The  history 
of  the  present  king  of  Great  Britain  is  a  history  of  repeated  injuries  and  usurpations, 
all  having  in  direct  object  the  establishment  of  an  absolute  tyranny  over  these 
States.     To  prove  this,  let  facts  be  submitted  to  a  candid  world. 

i.  He  has  refused  his  assent  to  laws  the  most  wholesome  and  necessary  for 
the  public  good. 

2.  He  has  forbidden  his  governors  to  pass  laws  of  immediate  and  pressing  im- 
portance, unless  suspended  in  their  operations  till  his  assent  should  be  obtained ; 
and,  when  so  suspended,  he  has  utterly  neglected  to  attend  to  them. 

3.  He  has  refused  to  pass  other  laws  for  the  accommodation  of  large  districts 
of  people,  unless  those  people  would  relinquish  the  right  of  representation  in  the 
Legislature — a  right  inestimable  to  them,  and  formidable  to  tyrants  only. 

4.  He  has  called  together  legislative  bodies  at  places  unusual,  uncomfortable, 
and  distant  from  the  repository  of  their  public  records,  for  the  sole  purpose  of 
fatiguing  them  into  compliance  with  his  measures. 

5.  He  has  dissolved  representative  houses  repeatedly,  for  opposing,  with  manly 
firmness,  his  invasions  on  the  rights  of  the  people. 

6.  He  has  refused,  for  a  long  time  after  such  dissolutions,  to  cause  others  to  be 
elected,  whereby  the  legislative  powers,  incapable  of  annihilation,  have  returned  to 
the  people  at  large  for  their  exercise ;  the  State  remaining,  in  the  meantime,  ex- 
posed to  all  the  dangers  of  invasions  from  without  and  convulsions  within. 

7.  He  has  endeavored  to  prevent  the  population  of  these  States  ;  for  that  pur- 
pose obstructing  the  laws  for  the  naturalization  of  foreigners  ;  refusing  to  pass 
others  to  encourage  their  migration  hither,  and  raising  the  conditions  of  new  appro- 
priations of  lands. 

8.  He  has  obstructed  the  administration  of  justice,  by  refusing  his  assent  to 
laws  for  establishing  judiciary  powers. 

9.  He  has  made  judges  dependent  on  his  will  alone  for  the  tenure  on  their  offices, 
and  the  amount  and  payment  of  their  salaries. 

10.  He  has  erected  a  multitude  of  new  offices,  and  sent  hither  swarms  of  officers, 
to  harass  our  people  and  eat  out  their  substance. 

11.  He  has  kept  among  us  in  times  of  peace,  standing  armies,  without  the  con- 
sent of  our  Legislatures. 

12.  He  has  affected  to  render  the  military  independent  of,  and  superior  to,  the 
civil  power. 

13.  He  has  combined  with  others  to  subject  us  to  a  jurisdiction  foreign  to  our 
constitutions,  and  unacknowledged  by  our  laws  ;  giving  his  assent  to  their  acts  of 
pretended  legislation  ; 

14.  For  quartering  large  bodies  of  armed  troops  among  us; 

15.  For  protecting  them,  by  a  mock  trial,  from  punishment  for  any  murders 
which  they  should  commit  on  the  inhabitants  of  these  States ; 


THE  DECLARATION  OF  INDEPENDENCE  36 1 

t6.  For  cutting  off  our  trade  with  all  parts  of  the  world; 

17.  For  imposing  taxes  on  us  without  our  consent ; 

18.  For  depriving  us,  in  many  cases,  of  the  benefits  of  a  trial  by  jury; 

19.  For  transporting  us  beyond  seas,  to  be  tried  for  pretended  offenses; 

20.  For  abolishing  the  free  system  of  English  laws  in  a  neighboring  province, 
establishing  therein  an  arbitrary  government,  and  enlarging  its  boundaries,  so  as  to 
render  it  at  once  an  example  and  fit  instrument  for  introducing  the  same  absolute 
rule  into  these  colonies  ; 

21.  For  taking  away  our  charters,  abolishing  our  most  valuable  laws,  and  alter- 
ing, fundamentally,  the  forms  of  our  governments ; 

22.  For  suspending  our  own  Legislatures,  and  declaring  themselves  invested 
with  power  to  legislate  for  us  in  all  cases  whatsoever. 

23.  He  has  abdicated  government  here,  by  declaring  us  out  of  his  protection, 
and  waging  war  against  us. 

24.  He  has  plundered  our  seas,  ravaged  our  coasts,  burned  our  towns,  and  de- 
stroyed the  lives  of  our  people. 

25.  He  is  at  this  time  transporting  large  armies  of  foreign  mercenaries  to  com- 
plete the  works  of  death,  desolation  and  tyranny,  already  begun  with  circumstances 
of  cruelty  and  perfidy  scarcely  paralleled  in  the  most  barbarous  ages,  and  totally  un- 
worthy the  head  of  a  civilized  nation. 

26.  He  has  constrained  our  fellow-citizens,  taken  captive  on  the  high  seas,  to 
bear  arms  against  their  country,  to  become  the  executioners  of  their  friends  and 
brethren,  or  to  fall  themselves  by  their  hands. 

27.  He  has  excited  domestic  insurrection  among  us,  and  has  endeavored  to 
bring  on  the  inhabitants  of  our  frontiers  the  merciless  Indian  savages,  whose  known 
rule  of  warfare  is  an  undistinguished  destruction  of  all  ages,  sexes,  and  conditions. 

,  In  every  stage  of  these  oppressions  we  have  petitioned  for  redress  in  the  most 
humble  terms  ;  our  repeated  petitions  have  been  answered  only  by  repeated  injury. 

A  prince  whose  character  is  thus  marked  by  every  act  which  may  define  a  tyrant, 
is  unfit  to  be  the  ruler  of  a  free  people. 

Nor  have  we  been  wanting  in  our  attentions  to  our  British  brethren.  We  have 
warned  them,  from  time  to  time,  of  attempts  by  their  legislature  to  extend  an  un- 
warrantable jurisdiction  over  us.  We  have  reminded  them  of  the  circumstances  of 
our  emigration  and  settlement  here.  We  have  appealed  to  their  native  justice  and 
magnanimity,  and  we  have  conjured  them  by  the  ties  of  our  common  kindred  to 
disavow  these  usurpations,  which  would  inevitably  interrupt  our  connections  and 
correspondence.  They,  too,  have  been  deaf  to  the  voice  of  justice  and  of  consan- 
guinity. We  must,  therefore,  acquiesce  in  the  necessity  which  denounces  our  sep- 
aration, and  hold  them  as  we  hold  the  rest  of  mankind— enemies  in  war  ;  in  peace, 
friends.  5> 

We,  therefore,  the  representatives  of  the  United  States  of  America  in  general 
Congress  assembled,  appealing  to  the  Supreme  Judge  of  the  world  for  the  recti- 
tude of  our  intentions,  do,  in  the  name  and  by  the  authority  of  the  good  people 
of  these  colonies,  solemnly  publish  and  declare  that  these  united  colonies  are, 
and  of  right  ought  to  be,  free  and  independent  States ;   that  they  are  absolved 


362 


APPENDIX  A 


from  all  allegiance  to  the  British  crown,  and  that  all  political  connection  between 
them  and  the  state  of  Great  Britain  is,  and  ought  to  be,  totally  dissolved,  and 
that,  as  free  and  independent  States,  they  have  full  power  to  levy  war,  conclude 
peace,  contract  alliances,  establish  commerce,  and  do  all  other  acts  and  things 
which  independent  States  may  of  right  do.  And  for  the  support  of  this  Declaration, 
with  a  firm  reliance  on  the  protection  of  Divine  Providence,  we  mutually  pledge  to 
each  other  our  lives,  our  fortunes,  and  our  sacred  honor. 


The  foregoing  declaration  was,  by  order  of  Congress,  engrossed,  and  signed  by 
the  following  members : 

JOHN    HANCOCK. 


NEW    HAMPSHIRE. 
josiah  bartlett, 
"William  Whipple, 
Matthew  Thornton. 

MASSACHUSETTS  BAY. 

Samuel  Adams, 
John  Adams, 
Robert  Treat  Paine, 
Elbridge  Gerry. 


RHODE   ISLAND 
Stephen  Hopkins, 
William  Ellery. 


CONNECTICUT. 

Roger  Sherman, 
Samuel  Huntington, 
William  Williams, 
Oliver  Wolcott. 


NEW  YORK 

William  Floyd, 
Philip  Livingston, 
Francis  Lewis, 
Lewis  Morris. 


NEW   JERSEY. 
Richard  Stockton, 
John  Witherspoon, 
Francis  Hopkinson, 
John  Hart, 
Abraham  Clark. 

PENNSYLVANIA. 

Robert  Morris, 
Benjamin  Rush, 
Benjamin  Franklin, 
John  Morton, 
George  Clymer, 
James  Smith, 
George  Taylor, 
James  Wilson, 
George  Ross. 

DELAWARE. 
Cesar  Rodney, 
George  Read, 
Thomas  M'Kean. 

MARYLAND. 

Samuel  Chase, 
William  Paca, 
Thomas  Stone, 
Charles  Carroll  of 
Carrolkon. 


VIRGINIA. 

George  Wythe, 
Richard  Henry  Lee, 
Thomas  Jefferson, 
Benjamin  Harrison, 
Thomas  Nelson,  Jun., 
Francis  Lightfoot  Lee, 
Carter  Braxton. 

NORTH    CAROLINA. 
William  Hooper, 
Joseph  Hewes, 
John  Penn. 

SOUTH   CAROLINA. 
Edward  Rutledge, 
Thomas  Heyward,  Jun., 
Thomas  Lynch,  Jun., 
Arthur  Middleton. 

GEORGIA. 
Button  Gwinnett» 
Lyman  Hall, 
George  Walton. 


APPENDIX   B 


A  CHART   ON   THE   CONSTITUTION 


Some  Steps  toward  the 
Constitution.. . . 


r  New  England  Confederation  (1643). 
Franklin's  Plan  of  Union  (1754). 
Stamp  Act  Congress  (1765). 
Committees  of  Correspondence  (1772). 
First  Meeting  of  the  Continental  Congress  (1774). 
Declaration  of  Independence  (1776). 
Adoption  of  Articles  of  Confederation  (1781;. 
Annapolis  Convention  (1786). 
Constitutional  Convention  (1787). 


Legislative 
ment 


Depart- 


Manner  of  election. 
Term  of  office. 
'House  of  Represent-  I  Qualifications. 

atives -j   Represents  the  people. 

Census. 

Apportionment. 

Speaker  the  Presiding  Officer. 

Number. 

Manner  of  election. 

Term  of  office. 

^Senate -|    Represents  the  States. 

Qualifications. 

Sole  power  to  try  impeachments. 

Vice-President  the  Piesiding  Officer. 


President. 


Executive     Depart- 
ment  


^Cabinet 


T  Term  of  office. 
I  Manner  of  election. 
■I  Qualifications. 
Oath  of  office. 
'^  Impeachment. 

{Manner  of  appointment. 
Number. 
Duties. 


Judicial  Department/i 


(Manner  of  appointment. 
Number. 


Term  oi  office. 


c°— ter 


District 


363 


3^4 


APPENDIX  B 


Congress. 


'  Time  of  meeting. 
Quorum. 
Adjournment. 
Journal. 

How  a  Bill  becomes 
a  Law. 


Congress  has  power — 
To  lay  taxes. 
To  borrow  money. 
To  regulate  commerce. 
To  naturalize  foreigners. 
To  coin  money. 

To  fix  standard  of  weights  and  measures. 
To  establish  post-offices. 
To  declare  war. 
To  raise  and  support  armies. 
To  provide  and  maintain  a  navy. 
To  maintain  light-houses. 
To  make  new  States. 


President's 
Powers.. 


Commander-in-Chief  of 

the  army  and  navy. 
With   the    advice    and 
consent  of  the   Sen- 
ate   makes     treaties    f  Ambassadors. 

and  appoints J  Ministers. 

**  1  Consuls. 

L  Judges. 


President's 
Duties. . 


'Messages  to  Con- 
gress. Special 
sessions  of  Con- 
gress. Receives 
Ambassadors. 
Attends  to  ex- 
ecution of  laws. 


CONSTITUTION   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 

We,  the  People  of  the  United  States,  in  order  to  form  a  more  perfect  union, 
establish  justice,  insure  domestic  tranquillity,  provide  for  the  common  defence,  pro- 
mote the  general  welfare,  and  secure  the  blessings  of  liberty  to  ourselves  and  our 
posterity,  do  ordain  and  establish  this  Constitution  for  the  United  States  of 
America. 

ARTICLE    I. — Legislative  Department. 

SECTION  I.  All  legislative  powers  herein  granted  shall  be  vested  in  a  Con- 
gress of  the  United  States,  which  shall  consist  of  a  Senate  and  House  of  Represent- 


SECTION  II.  Clause  i.  The  House  of  Representatives  shall  be  composed 
of  members  chosen  every  second  year  by  the  people  of  the  several  States,  and  the 
electors  in  each  State  shall  have  the  qualifications  requisite  for  electors  of  the  most 
numerous  branch  of  the  State  Legislature. 

Clause  2.  No  person  shall  be  a  representative  who  shall  not  have  attained  to 
the  age  of  twenty-five  years,  and  been  seven  years  a  citizen  of  the  United  States, 
and  who  shall  not,  when  elected,  be  an  inhabitant  of  that  State  in  which  he  shall  be 
chosen. 

Clause  3.  Representatives  and  direct  taxes  shall  be  apportioned  among  the  sev- 
eral States  which  may  be  included  within  this  Union,  according  to  their  respective 


CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  365 

numbers,1  which  shall  be  determined  by  adding  to  the  whole  number  of  free  persons, 
including  those  bound  to  service  for  a  term  of  years,  and  excluding  Indians  not  taxed, 
three  fifths  of  all  other  persons.  The  actual  enumeration  shall  be  made  within  three 
years  after  the  first  meeting  of  the  Congress  of  the  United  States,  and  within  every 
subsequent  term  of  ten  years,  in  such  manner  as  they  shall  by  law  direct.  The  num- 
ber of  representatives  shall  not  exceed  one  for  every  thirty  thousand,  but  each  State 
shall  have  at  least  one  representative ;  and  until  such  enumeration  shall  be  made, 
the  State  of  New  Hampshire  shall  be  entitled  to  choose  three;  Massachusetts,  eight ; 
Rhode  Island  and  Providence  Plantations,  one ;  Connecticut,  five  ;  New  York,  six  ; 
New  Jersey,  four;  Pennsylvania,  eight ;  Delaware,  one;  Maryland,  six  ;  Virginia, 
ten  ;  North  Carolina,  five ;   South  Carolina,  five  ;  and  Georgia,  three. 

Clause  4.  When  vacancies  happen  in  the  representation  from  any  State,  the 
executive  authority  thereof  shall  issue  writs  of  election  to  fill  such  vacancies. 

Clause  5.  The  House  of  Representatives  shall  choose  their  Speaker  and  other 
officers ;  and  shall  have  the  sole  power  of  impeachment. 

SECTION  III.— Clause  i.  The  Senate  of  the  United  States  shall  be  corm- 
posed  of  two  senators  from  each  State,  chosen  by  the  Legislature  thereof,  for  six. 
years  ;  and  each  senator  shall  have  one  vote. 

Clause  2.  Immediately  after  they  shall  be  assembled  in  consequence  of  the  first 
•lection,  they  shall  be  divided  as  equally  as  may  be  into  three  classes.  The  seats  of 
the  senators  of  the  first  class  shall  be  vacated  at  the  expiration  of  the  second  year ; 
of  the  second  class,  at  the  expiration  of  the  fourth  year ;  and  of  the  third  class,  at 
the  expiration  of  the  sixth  year,  so  that  one  third  may  be  chosen  every  second  year ; 
and  if  vacancies  happen  by  resignation,  or  otherwise,  during  the  recess  of  the  Legis- 
lature of  any  State,  the  executive  thereof  may  make  temporary  appointments  untiL 
the  next  meeting  of  the  Legislature,  which  shall  then  fill  such  vacancies. 

Clause  3.  No  person  shall  be  a  senator  who  shall  not  have  attained  to  the  age 
of  thirty  years,  and  been  nine  years  a  citizen  of  the  United  States,  and  who  shall  not, 
when  elected,  be  an  inhabitant  of  that  State  for  which  he  shall  be  chosen. 

Clause  4.  The  Vice-President  of  the  United  States  shall  be  president  of  the 
Senate,  but  shall  have  no  vote,  unless  they  be  equally  divided. 

Clause  5.  The  Senate  shall  choose  their  other  officers,  and  also  a  president  pro> 
tempore,  in  the  absence  of  the  Vice-President,  or  when  he  shall  exercise  the  office  of 
President  of  the  United  States. 

Clause  6.  The  Senate  shall  have  the  sole  power  to  try  all  impeachments. 
When  sitting  for  that  purpose,  they  shall  be  on  oath  or  affirmation.  When  the 
President  of  the  United  States  is  tried,  the  Chief-Justice  shall  preside ;  and  no 
person  shall  be  convicted  without  the  concurrence  of  two  thirds  of  the  members 
present. 

Clause  7.  Judgment  in  cases  of  impeachment  shall  not  extend  further  than  to 
removal  from  office,  and  disqualification  to  hold  and  enjoy  any  office  of  honor,  trust, 
or  profit  under  the  United  States  ;  but  the  party  convicted  shall  nevertheless  be 

>  Under  the  census  of  19 10  one  representative  is  apportioned  to  every  212,407  people. 


366  APPENDIX  B 

liable  and  subject  to  indictment,  trial,  judgment,   and  punishment,  according   to 
law. 

SECTION  IV. — Clause  i.  The  times,  places,  and  manner  of  holding  elections 
for  senators  and  representatives  shall  be  prescribed  in  each  State  by  the  Legislature 
thereof  ;  but  the  Congress  may  at  any  time,  by  law,  make  or  alter  such  regulations, 
except  as  to  the  places  of  choosing  senators. 

Clause  2.  The  Congress  shall  assemble  at  least  once  in  every  year,  and  such 
meeting  shall  be  on  the  first  Monday  in  December,  unless  they  shall  by  law  appoint 
a  different  day. 

SECTION  V. — Clause  i.  Each  House  shall  be  the  judge  of  the  elections,  re- 
turns, and  qualifications  of  its  own  members,  and  a  majority  of  each  shall  constitute 
a  quorum  to  do  business  ;  but  a  smaller  number  may  adjourn  from  day  to  day,  and 
may  be  authorized  to  compel  the  attendance  of  absent  members,  in  such  manner, 
and  under  such  penalties,  as  each  house  may  provide. 

Clause  2.  Each  House  may  determine  the  rules  of  its  proceedings,  punisk  its 
members  for  disorderly  behavior,  and  with  the  concurrence  of  two  thirds,  expel  a 
member. 

CLAUSE  3.  Each  House  shall  keep  a  journal  of  its  proceedings,  and  from  time  to 
time  publish  the  same,  excepting  such  parts  as  may  in  their  judgment  require 
secrecy,  and  the  yeas  and  nays  of  the  members  of  either  House  on  any  question 
shall,  at  the  desire  of  one  fifth  of  those  present,  be  entered  on  the  journal. 

Clause  4. — Neither  house,  during  the  session  of  Congress,  shall,  without  the 
consent  of  the  other,  adjourn  for  moie  than  three  days,  nor  to  any  other  place  than 
that  in  which  the  two  Houses  shall  be  sitting. 

SECTION  VI. — Clause  i.  The  senators  and  representatives  shall  receive  a 
compensation  for  their  services,  to  be  ascertained  by  law  and  paid  out  of  the  treas- 
ury of  the  United  States.  They  shall  in  all  cases,  except  treason,  felony,  and 
breach  of  the  peace,  be  privileged  from  arrest  during  their  attendance  at  the  ses- 
sion of  their* respective  Houses,  and  in  going  to  and  returning  from  the  same;  and 
for  any  speech  or  debate  in  either  House,  they  shall  not  be  questioned  in  any  other 
place. 

Clause  2.  No  senator  or  representative  shall,  during  the  time  for  which  he  was 
elected,  be  appointed  to  any  civil  •office  under  the  authority  of  the  United  States, 
which  shall  have  been  created,  or  the  emoluments  whereof  shall  have  been  in- 
creased, during  such  time  ;  and  no  person  holding  any  office  under  the  United  States 
shall  be  a  member  of  either  House  during  his  continuance  in  office. 

SECTION  VII.— Clause  i.  All  bills  for  raising  revenue  shall  originate  in  the 
House  of  Representatives ;  but  the  Senate  may  propose  or  concur  with  amendments, 
as  on  other  bills. 

Clause  2.  Every  bill  which  shall  have  passed  the  House  of  Representatives 
and  the  Senate,  shall,  before  it  become  a  law,  be  presented  to  the  President  of  the 
United  States  j  if  he  approve,  he  shall  sign  it,  but  if  not,  he  shall  return  it,  with 


CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED   STATES  367 

his  objections,  to  that  house  in  which  it  shall  have  originated,  who  shall  enter  the 
objections  at  large  on  their  journal,  and  proceed  to  reconsider  it.  If  after  such  re- 
consideration, two  thirds  of  that  house  shall  agree  to  pass  the  bill,  it  shall  be  sent, 
together  with  the  objections,  to  the  other  house,  by  which  it  shall  likewise  be  recon- 
sidered, and  if  approved  by  two  thirds  of  that  house,  it  shall  become  a  law.  But  in 
all  such  cases  the  votes  of  both  houses  shall  be  determined  by  yeas  and  nays,  and 
the  names  of  the  persons  voting  for  and  against  the  bill  shall  be  entered  on  the 
journal  of  each  house  respectively.  If  any  bill  shall  not  be  returned  by  the  Presi- 
dent within  ten  days  (Sundays  excepted)  after  it  shall  have  been  presented  to  him, 
the  same  shall  be  a  law,  in  like  manner  as  if  he  had  signed  ,it,  unless  the  Congress 
by  their  adjournment  prevent  its  return,  in  which  case  it  shall  not  be  a  law. 

Clause  3.  Every  order,  resolution,  or  vote  to  which  the  concurrence  of  the 
Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  may  be  necessary  (except  on  a  question  of 
adjournment)  shall  be  presented  to  the  President  of  the  United  States ;  and  before 
the  same  shall  take  effect,  shall  be  approved  by  him,  or  being  disapproved  by  him, 
shall  be  repassed  by  two  thirds  of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives,  accord- 
ing to  the  rules  and  limitations  prescribed  in  the  case  of  a  bill. 

SECTION  VIII.— Clause  i.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  lay  and  col- 
lect taxes,  duties,  imposts,  and  excises,  to  pay  the  debts  and  provide  for  the  common 
defence  and  general  welfare  of  the  United  States  ;  but  all  duties,  imposts,  and  ex- 
cises shall  be  uniform  throughout  the  United  States  ; 

Clause  2.   To  borrow  money  on  the  credit  of  the  United  States  ; 

Clause  3.  To  regulate  commerce  with  foreign  nations,  and  among  the  several 
States,  and  with  the  Indian  tribes  ; 

Clause  4.  To  establish  an  uniform  rule  of  naturalization,  and  uniform  laws  on 
the  subject  of  bankruptcies  throughout  the  United  States : 

Clause  5.  To  coin  money,  regulate  the  value  thereof,  and  of  foreign  coin,  and 
fix  the  standard  of  weights  and  measures  ; 

Clause  6.  To  provide  for  the  punishment  of  counterfeiting  the  securities  and 
current  coin  of  the  United  States  ; 

Clause  7.   To  establish  post-offices  and  post-roads  ; 

Clause  8.  To  promote  the  progress  of  science  and  useful  arts,  by  securing,  for 
limited  times,  to  authors  and  inventors  the  exclusive  right  to  their  respective  writings 
and  discoveries ; 

Clause  9.  To  constitute  tribunals  inferior  to  the  Supreme  Court ; 

Clause  10.  To  define  and  punish  piracies  and  felonies  committed  on  the  high 
seas,  and  offences  against  the  law  of  nations  j 

Clause  ii.  To  declare  war,  grant  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal,  and  make 
rules  concerning  captures  on  land  and  water  ; 

Clause  12.  To  raise  and  support  armies,  but  no  appropriation  of  money  to  that 
use  shall  be  for  a  longer  term  than  two  years  ; 

Clause  13.   To  provide  and  maintain  a  navy; 

Clause  14.  To  make  rules  for  the  government  and  regulation  of  the  land  and 
naval  forces ; 


t 
368  APPENDIX  B 

Clause  15.  To  provide  for  calling  forth  the  militia  to  execute  the  laws  of  the 
Union,  suppress  insurrections,  and  repel  invasions ; 

Clause  16.  To  provide  for  organizing,  arming,  and  disciplining  the  militia,  and 
for  governing  such  part  of  them  as  may  be  employed  in  the  service  of  the  United 
States,  reserving  to  the  States  respectively  the  appointment  of  the  officers,  and  the 
authority  of  training  the  militia  according  to  the  discipline  prescribed  by  Con- 
gress : 

Clause  i  7.  To  exercise  exclusive  legislation  in  all  cases  whatsoever  over  such 
district  (not  exceeding  ten  miles  square)  as  may,  by  cession  of  particular  States, 
and  the  acceptance  of  Congress,  become  the  seat  of  the  government  of  the  United 
States,  and  to  exercise  like  authority  over  all  places  purchased  by  the  consent  of  the 
Legislature  of  the  State  in  which  the  same  shall  be,  for  the  erection  of  forts,  maga- 
zines, arsenals,  dock-yards,  and  other  needful  buildings  ; — And 

Clause  18.  To  make  all  laws  which  shall  be  necessary  and  proper  for  carrying 
into  execution  the  foregoing  powers,  and  all  other  powers  vested  by  this  Constitu- 
tion in  the  government  of  the  United  States,  or  in  any  department  or  officer 
thereof. 

SECTION  IX. — Clause  i.  The  migration  or  importation  of  such  persons  as 
any  of  the  States  now  existing  shall  think  proper  to  admit,  shall  not  be  prohibited 
by  the  Congress  prior  to  the  year  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  eight,  but  a  tax 
or  duty  may  be  imposed  on  such  importation,  not  exceeding  ten  dollars  for  each 
person. 

Clause  2.  The  privilege  of  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus  shall  not  be  suspended, 
unless  when  in  cases  of  rebellion  or  invasion  the  public  safety  may  require  it. 

Clause  3.   No  bill  of  attainder  or  ex  post  facto  law  shall  be  passed. 

Clause  4.  No  capitation  or  other  direct  tax  shall  be  laid,  unless  in  proportion 
to  the  census  or  enumeration  hereinbefore  directed  to  be  taken. 

Clause  5.   No  tax  or  duty  shall  be  laid  on  articles  exported  from  any  State. 

Clause  6.  No  preference  shall  be  given  by  any  regulation  of  commerce  or  rev- 
enue to  the  ports  of  one  State  over  those  of  another  ;  nor  shall  vessels  bound  to,  or 
from,  one  State,  be  obliged  to  enter,  clear,  or  pay  duties  in  another. 

Clause  7.  No  money  shall  be  drawn  from  the  treasury  but  in  consequence  of 
appropriations  made  by  law  ;  and  a  regular  statement  and  account  of  the  receipts 
and  expenditures  of  all  public  money  shall  be  published  from  time  to  time. 

Clause  8.  No  title  of  nobility  shall  be  granted  by  the  United  States  :  And  no 
person  holding  any  office  of  profit  or  trust  under  them,  shall,  without  the  consent  of 
the  Congress,  accept  of  any  present,  emolument,  office,  or  title,  of  any  kind  what- 
ever, from  any  king,  prince,  or  foreign  State. 

* 
SECTION  X. — Clause  i.  No  State  shall  enter  into  any  treaty,  afliance,  or 

confederation ;   grant  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal ;  coin  money ;  emit  bills  of 

credit ;  make  any  thing  but  gold  and  silver  coin  a  tender  in  payment  of  debts;   pass 

any  bill  of  attainder,  ex  post  facto  law,  or  law  impairing  the  obligation  of  contracts, 

or  grant  any  title  of  nobility. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED   STATES  369 

Clause  2.  No  State  shall,  without  the  consent  of  the  Congress,  lay  any  impost 
or  duties  on  imports  or  exports,  except  what  may  be  absolutely  necessary  for  exe- 
cuting its  inspection  laws  ;  and  the  net  produce  of  all  duties  and  impost,  laid  by 
any  State  on  imports  or  exports,  shall  be  for  the  use  of  the  treasury  of  the  United 
States ;  and  all  such  laws  shall  be  subject  to  the  revision  and  control  of  the  Con- 
gress. 

Clause  3.  No  State  shall,  without  the  consent  of  Congress,  lay  any  duty  of 
tonnage,  keep  troops,  or  ships  of  war,  in  time  of  peace,  enter  into  any  agreement  or 
compact  with  another  State,  or  with  a  foreign  power,  or  engage  in  war,  unless 
actually  invaded,  or  in  such  imminent  danger  as  will  not  admit  of  delay. 


ARTICLE  II.— Executive  Department. 

SECTION  I. — Clause  i.  The  executive  power  shall  be  vested  in  a  President 
of  the  United  States  of  America.  He  shall  hold  his  office  during  a  term  of  four 
years,  and,  together  with  the  Vice-President,  chosen  for  the  same  term,  be  elected 
as  follows : 

Clause  2.  Each  State  shall  appoint,  in  such  manner  as  the  Legislature  thereof 
may  direct,  a  number  of  electors,  equal  to  the  whole  number  of  senators  and  repre- 
sentatives to  which  the  State  may  be  entitled  in  the  Congress  ;  but  no  senator  or 
representative,  or  person  holding  an  office  of  trust  or  profit  under  the  United  States, 
shall  be  appointed  an  elector. 

Clause  3.1 

Clause  4.  The  Congress  may  determine  the  time  of  choosing  the  electors,  and 
the  day  on  which  they  shall  give  their  votes ;  which  day  shall  be  the  same  through- 
out the  United  States. 

Clause  5.  No  person  except  a  natural-born  citizen,  or  a  citizen  of  the  United 
States  at  the  time  of  the  adoption  of  this  Constitution,  shall  be  eligible  to  the  office 
of  President ;  neither  shall  any  person  be  eligible  to  that  office  who  shall  not  have 
attained  to  the  age  of  thirty-five  years,  and  been  fourteen  years  resident  within  the 
United  States. 

Clause  6. — In  case  of  the  removal  of  the  President  from  office,  or  of  his  death, 
resignation,  or  inability  to  discharge  the  powers  and  duties  of  the  said  office,  the 
same  shall  devolve  on  the  Vice-President,  and  the  Congress  may  by  law  provide  for 
the  case  of  removal,  death,  resignation,  or  inability,  both  of  the  President  and  Vice- 
President,  declaring  what  officer  shall  then  act  as  President ;  and  such  officer  shall 
act  accordingly  until  the  disability  be  removed,  or  a  President  shall  be  elected. 

Clause  7.  The  President  shall,  at  stated  times,  receive  for  his  services  a  com- 
pensation which  shall  neither  be  increased  nor  diminished  during  the  period  for 
which  he  shall  have  been  elected,  and  he  shall  not  receive  within  that  period  any 
other  emolument  from  the  United  States,  or  any  of  them. 

Clause  8.   Before  he  enter  on  the  execution  of  his  office,  he  shall  take  the  fol* 

1  This  clause  is  no  longer  in  force.     Amendment  XII.  has  superseded  it. 


370  APPENDIX  B 

lowing  oath  or  affirmation  : — "  I  do  solemnly  swear  (or  affirm)  that  I  will  faithfully 
execute  the  office  of  President  of  the  United  States,  and  will,  to  the  best  of  my  abil- 
ity, preserve,  protect,  and  defend  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States." 

SECTION  II.— Clause  i.  The  President  shall  be  commander-in-chief  of  the 
army  and  navy  of  the  United  States,  and  of  the  militia  of  the  several  States,  when 
called  into  the  actual  service  of  the  United  States  ;  he  may  require  the  opinion,  in 
writing,  of  the  principal  officer  in  each  of  the  executive  departments,  upon  any 
subject  relating  to  the  duties  of  their  respective  offices ;  and  he  shall  have  power  to 
grant  reprieves  and  pardons  for  offences  against  the  United  States,  except  in  cases 
of  impeachment.  , 

Clause  2.  He  shall  have  power,  by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the 
Senate,  to  make  treaties,  provided  two  thirds  of  the  senators  present  concur  ;  and 
he  shall  nominate,  and  by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate  shall  ap- 
point, ambassadors,  other  public  ministers  and  consuls,  judges  of  the  Supreme 
Court,  and  all  other  officers  of  the  United  States,  whose  appointments  are  not  herein 
otherwise  provided  for,  and  which  shall  be  established  by  law ;  but  the  Congress 
.may  by  law  vest  the  appointment  of  such  inferior  officers,  as  they  think  proper,  in 
the  President  alone,  in  the  courts  of  law,  or  in  the  heads  of  department. 

Clause  3.  The  President  shall  have  power  to  fill  up  all  vacancies  that  may 
happen  during  the  recess  of  the  Senate,  by  granting  commissions  which  shall  expire 
at  the  end  of  their  next  session. 

SECTION  III. — He  shall  from  time  to  time  give  to  the  Congress  information1 
of  the  state  of  the  Union,  and  recommend  to  their  consideration  such  measures  as 
he  shall  judge  necessary  and  expedient ;  he  may,  on  extraordinary  occasions,  con- 
vene both  Houses,  or  either  of  them,  and  in  case  of  disagreement  between  them  with 
respect  to  the  time  of  adjournment,  he  may  adjourn  them  to  such  time  as  he  shall 
think  proper  ;  he  shall  receive  ambassadors  and  other  public  ministers  ;  he  shall 
take  care  that  the  laws  be  faithfully  executed,  and  shall  commission  all  the  officers 
of  the  United  States. 

SECTION  IV. — The  President,  Vice-President,  and  all  civil  officers  of  the 
United  States,  shall  be  removed  from  office  on  impeachment  for,  and  conviction  of, 
treason,  bribery,  or  other  high  crimes  and  misdemeanors. 


ARTICLE  III.— Judicial  Department. 

SECTION  I. — The  judicial  power  of  the  United  States  shall  be  vested  in  one 
Supreme  Court,  and  in  such  inferior  courts  as  the  Congress  may  from  time  to  time 
ordain  and  establish.  The  judges,  both  of  the  Supreme  and  inferior  courts,  shall 
hold  their  offices  during  good  behavior,  and  shall,  at  stated  times,  receive  for  their 
services  a  compensation  which  shall  not  be  diminished  during  their  continuance  in 
office. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  37 1 

SECTION  II. — Clause  i.1  The  judicial  power  shall  extend  to  all  cases,  in  law 
and  equity,  arising  under  this  Constitution,  the  laws  of  the  United  States,  and 
treaties  made,  or  which  shall  be  made,  under  their  authority  ; — to  all  cases  affecting 
ambassadors,  other  .public  ministers,  and  consuls  ; — to  all  cases  of  admiralty  and 
maritime  jurisdiction  ; — to  controversies  to  which  the  United  States  shall  be  a  party; 
— to  controversies  between  two  or  more  States; — between  a  State  and  citizens  of 
another  State  ; — between  citizens  of  different  States ; — between  citiaens  of  the  same 
State  claiming  lands  under  grants  of  different  States,  and  between  a  State  or  the 
citizens  thereof,  and  foreign  states,  citizens,  or  subjects. 

Clause  2.  In  all  cases  affecting  ambassadors,  other  public  ministers  and  con- 
suls, and  those  in  which  a  State  shall  be  party,  the  Supreme  Court  shall  have  orig- 
inal jurisdiction.  In  all  the  other  cases  before  mentioned,  the  Supreme  Court  shall 
have  appellate  jurisdiction,  both  as  to  law  and  fact,  with  such  exceptions  and  under 
such  regulations  as  the  Congress  shall  make. 

Clause  3.  The  trial  of  all  crimes,  except  in  cases  of  impeachment,  shall  be  by 
jury,  and  such  trial  shall  be  held  in  the  State  where  the  said  crimes  shall  have  been 
committed ;  but  when  not  committed  within  any  State,  the  trial  shall  be  at  such, 
place  or  places-  as  the  Congress  may  by  law  have  directed. 

SECTION  III. — Clause  i.  Treason  against  the  United  States  shall  consist 
only  in  levying  war  against  them,  or  in  adhering  to  their  enemies,  giving  them  aid 
and  comfort.  No  person  shall  be  convicted  of  treason,  unless  on  the  testimony  of 
two  witnesses  to  the  same  overt  act,  or  on  confession  in  open  court. 

Clause  2.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  declare  the  punishment  of  treason ; 
but  no  attainder  of  treason  shall  work  corruption  of  blood,  or  forfeiture,  except  dur- 
ing the  life  of  the  person  attainted. 


ARTICLE   IV.— General  Provisions. 

SECTION  I.— Full  faith  and  credit  shall  be  given  in  each  State  to  the  public 
acts,  records,  and  judicial  proceedings  of  every  other  State  ;  and  the  Congress  may 
by  general  laws  prescribe  the  manner  in  which  such  acts,  records,  and  proceedings 
shall  be  proved,  and  the  effect  thereof. 

SECTION  II.— Clause  i.  The  citizens  of  each  State  shall  be  entitled  to  all 
privileges  and  immunities  of  citizens  in  the  several  States. 

Clause  2.  A  person  charged  in  any  State  with  treason,  felony,  or  other  crime, 
who  shall  flee  from  justice,  and  be  found  in  another  State,  shall,  on  demand  of  the 
executive  authority  of  the  State  from  which  he  fled,  be  delivered  up,  to  be  removed 
to  the  State  having  jurisdiction  of  the  crime. 

Clause  3.  No  person  held  to  service  or  labor  in  one  State,  under  the  laws 
thereof,  escaping  into  another,  shall  in  consequence  of  any  law  or  regulation  therein, 
be  discharged  from  such  service  or  labor,  but  shall  be  ..elivered  up  on  claim  of  the 
party  to  whom  such  service  or  labor  may  be  due. 

This  clause  has  been  modified  by  Amendment  XI. 


IJ2  APPENDIX  B 

SECTION  III.— Clause  i.  New  States  may  be  admitted  by  the  Congress  w*> 
this  Union  ;  but  no  new  State  shall  be  formed  or  erected  within  the  jurisdiction  or 
any  other  State  ;  nor  any  State  be  formed  by  the  junction  of  two  or  more  States,  or 
parts  of  States,  without  the  consent  of  the  Legislatures  of  the  States  concerned  as 
well  as  of  the  Congress. 

Clause  2.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  dispose  of  and  make  all  needful 
rules  and  regulations  respecting  the  territory  or  other  property  belonging  to  the 
United  States  ;  and  nothing  in  this  Constitution  shall  be  so  construed  as  to  preju- 
dice any  claims  of  the  United  States,  or  of  any  particular  State. 

SECTION  IV.— The  United  States  shall  guarantee  to  every  State  in  this 
Union  a  republican  form  of  Government,  and  shall  protect  each  of  them  against 
invasion,  and  on  application  of  the  Legislature,  or  of  the  executive  (when  the  Leg- 
islature can  not  be  convened),  against  domestic  violence. 


ARTICLE   V.— Power  of  Amendment. 

The  Congress,  whenever  two  thirds  of  both  houses  shall  deem  it  necessary, 
shall  propose  amendments  to  this  Constitution,  or,  on  the  application  of  the  Legis 
latures  of  two  thirds  of  the  several  States,  shall  call  a  convention  for  proposing 
amendments,  which,  in  either  case,  shall  be  valid  to  all  intents  and  purposes,  a» 
part  of  this  Constitution,  when  ratified  by  the  Legislatures  of  three  fourths  of  ths. 
several  States,  or  by  conventions  in  three  fourths  thereof,  as  the  one  or  the  othet 
mode  of  ratification  may  be  proposed  by  the  Congress ;  provided  that  no  amende 
ment  which  may  be  made  prior  to  the  year  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  eight 
snail  in  any  manner  affect  the  first  and  fourth  clauses  in  the  ninth  section  of  th% 
first  article ;  and  that  no  State,  without  its  consent,  shall  be  deprived  of  its  equal 
suffrage  in  the  Senate. 


ARTICLE   VI. — Miscellaneous  Provisions. 

Clause  i.  All  debts  contracted,  and  engagements  entered  into,  before  the  adop- 
tion of  this  Constitution,  shall  be  as  valid  against  the  United  States  under  this 
Constitution,  as  under  the  Confederation. 

Clause  2.  This  Constitution,  and  the  laws  of  the  United  States  which  shall  be 
made  in  pursuance  thereof ;  and  all  treaties  made,  or  which  shall  be  made,  under 
the  authority  of  the  United  States,  shall  be  the  supreme  law  of  the  land  ■  and  the 
judges  in  every  State  shall  be  bound  thereby,  any  thing  in  the  Constitution  or 
laws  of  any  State  to  the  contrary  notwithstanding. 

Clause  3.  The  senators  and  representatives  before  mentioned,  and  the  members 
of  the  several  State  Legislatures,  and  all  executive  and  judicial  officers,  both  of 
the  United  States  and  of  the  several  States,  shall  be  bound  by  oath  or  affirmation 
to  support  this  Constitution  ;  but  no  religious  test  shall  ever  be  required  as  a  quali- 
fication to  any  office  or  public  trust  under  the  United  States. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 


373 


ARTICLE   VII.— Ratification  of  the  Constitute. 

The  ratification  of  the  conventions  of  nine  States  shall  be  sufficient  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  this  Constitution  between  the  States  so  ratifying  the  same. 

Done  in  convention,  by  the  unanimous  consent  of  the  States  present,  the 
seventeenth  day  of  September,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord  one  thousand 
seven  hundred  j.nd  eighty-seven,  and  of  the  independence  of  the  United 
States  of  America  the  twelfth. 
In  witness  whereof  we  have  hereunto  subscribed  our  names. 

GEORGE  WASHINGTON, 
President,  and  Deputy  from  Virginia. 


CONSENT   OF  THE    STATES    PRESENT.1 


NEW  HAMPSHIRE. 
John  Langdon, 
Nicholas  Gilman. 

MASSACHUSETTS. 
Nathaniel  Gorham, 
Rufus  King. 

CONNECTICUT 
William  Samuel  Johnson, 
Roger  Sherman. 


DELAWARE. 
George  Read, 
Gunning  Bedford,  Jr., 
John  Dickinson, 
Richard  Bassett, 
Jacob  Broom. 

MARYLAND. 
James  McHenry, 
Daniel  of  St.  Thomas  Jenifer, 
Daniel  Carroll. 


NEW  YORK. 
Alexander  Hamilton. 

NEW  JERSEY. 
William  Livingston, 
David  Brearley, 
William  Paterson, 
Jonathan  Dayton. 


VIRGINIA. 
John  Blair, 
James  Madison,  Jr. 

NORTH  CAROLINA. 
William  Blount, 
Richard  Dobbs  Spaight, 
Hugh  Williamson. 


PENNSYLVANIA. 
Benjamin  Franklin, 
Thomas  Mifflin, 
Robert  Morris, 
George  Clymer, 
Thomas  Fitzsimons, 
Jared  Ingersol, 
James  Wilson, 
Gouverneur  Morris. 


Attest: 


SOUTH  CAROLINA- 
John  Rutledge, 
Charles  C.  Pinckney, 
Charles  Pinckney, 
Pierce  Butler. 

GEORGIA. 
William  Few, 
Abraham  Baldwin. 
WILLIAM  JACKSON,  Secretary. 


i  Rhode  Island  was  not  represented  in  the  Federal  Convention. 


374  APPENDIX  B 


AMENDMENTS1 

To  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States,  Ratified  according  to  the 
Provisions  of  the  Fifth  Article  of  the  Foregoing  Constitution. 

ARTICLE  I. — Congress  shall  make  no  law  respecting  an  establishment  of 
religion,  or  prohibiting  the  free  exercise  thereof ;  or  abridging  the  freedom  of 
speech,  or  of  the  press ;  or  the  right  of  the  people  peaceably  to  assemble,  and  to 
petition  the  government  for  redress  of  grievances. 

ARTICLE  II. — A  well-regulated  militia  being  necessary  to  the  security  of  a 
free  State,  the  right  of  the  people  to  keep  and  bear  arms  shall  not  be  infringed. 

ARTICLE  III. — No  soldier  shall,  in  time  of  peace,  be  quartered  in  any  house, 
without  the  consent  of  the  owner,  nor  in  time  of  war,  but  in  a  manner  to  be  pre- 
scribed by  law. 

ARTICLE  IV. — The  right  of  the  people  to  be  secure  in  their  persons,  houses 
papers,  and  effects,  against  unreasonable  searches  and  seizures,  shall  not  be  vio- 
lated, and  no  warrants  shall  issue,  but  upon  probable  cause,  supported  by  oath  or 
affirmation,  and  particularly  describing  the  place  to  be  searched,  and  the  persons  or 
things  to  be  seized. 

ARTICLE  V. — No  person  shall  be  held  to  answer  for  a  capital  or  otherwise  in- 
famous crime,  unless  on  a  presentment  or  indictment  of  a  grand  jury,  except  in 
cases  arising  in  the  land  or  naval  forces,  or  in  the  militia,  when  in  actual  service  in 
time  of  war  and  public  danger  ;  nor  shall  any  person  be  subject  for  the  same  offence 
to  be  twice  put  in  jeopardy  of  life  or  limb ;  nor  shall  be  compelled  in  any  criminal 
case  to  be  a  witness  against  himself,  nor  to  be  deprived  of  life,  liberty,  or  property, 
without  due  process  of  law;  nor  shall  private  property  be  taken  for  public  use 
without  just  compensation. 

ARTICLE  VI. — In  all  criminal  prosecutions,  the  accused  shall  enjoy  the  right 
to  a  speedy  and  public  trial,  by  an  impartial  jury  of  the  State  and  district  wherein 
the  crime  shall  have  been  committed,  which  district  shall  have  been  previously 
ascertained  by  law,  and  to  be  informed  of  the  nature  and  cause  of  the  accusation ; 
to  be  confronted  with  the  witnesses  against  him;  to  have  compulsory  process  for 
obtaining  witnesses  in  his  favor,  and  to  have  the  assistance  of  counsel  for  his 
defence. 

ARTICLE  VII. — In  suits  at  common  law,  where  the  value  in  controversy  shall 
exceed  twenty  dollars,  the  right  of  trial  by  jury  shall  be  preserved,  and  no  fact  tried 
by  a  jury  shall  be  otherwise  re-examined  in  any  court  of  the  United  States,  than 
according  to  the  rules  of  common  law. 

ARTICLE  VIII.— Excessive  bail  shall  not  be  required,  nor  excessive  fines  im- 
posed, nor  cruel  and  unusual  punishments  inflicted. 

»  Amendments  I.  to  X.  were  declared  in  force  December  15,  1791. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  '  375 

ARTICLE  IX. — The  enumeration  in  the  Constitution  of  certain  rights,  shall  not 
"be  construed  to  deny  or  disparage  others  retained  by  the  people. 

ARTICLE  X. — The  powers  not  delegated  to  the  United  States  by  the  Constitu- 
tion, nor  prohibited  by  it  to  the  States,  are  reserved  to  the  States  respectively,  or  to 
the  people. 

ARTICLE  XI.1 — The  judicial  power  of  the  United  States  shall  not  be  construed 
to  extend  to  any  suit  in  law  or  equity,  commenced  or  prosecuted  against  one  of  the 
United  States  by  citizens  of  another  State,  or  by  citizens  or  subjects  of  any  foreign 
state. 

ARTICLE  XII2 — The  electors  shall  meet  in  their  respective  States,  and  vote* 
by  ballot  for  President  and  Vice-President,  one  of  whom,  at  least,  shall  not  be  an 
inhabitant  of  the  same  State  with  themselves ;  they  shall  name  in  their  ballots  the 
person  voted  for  as  President,  and  indistinct  ballots  the  person  voted  for  as  Vice- 
President  ;  and  they  shall  make  distinct  lists  of  all  persons  voted  for  as  President, 
and  of  all  persons  voted  for  as  Vice-President,  and  of  the  number  of  votes  for  each, 
which  lists  they  shall  sign  and  certify,  and  transmit  sealed  to  the  seat  of  the  govern- 
ment of  the  United  States,  directed  to  the  president  of  the  Senate; — the  president 
of  the  Senate  shall,  in  the  presence  of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives, 
open  all  the  certificates,  and  the  votes  shall  then  be  counted  ; — the  person  having 
the  greatest  number  of  votes  for  President,  shall  be  the  President,  if  such  number 
be  a  majority  of  the  whole  number  of  electors  appointed  ;  and  if  no  person  have 
such  majority,  then  from  the  persons  having  the  highest  numbers  not  exceeding 
three  on  the  list  of  those  voted  for  as  President,  the  House  of  Representatives  shall 
choose  immediately,  by  ballot,  the  President.  But  in  choosing  the  President,  the 
votes  shall  be  taken  by  States,  the  representation  from  each  State  having  one  vote  ; 
a  quorum  for  this  purpose  shall  consist  of  a  member  or  members  from  two  thirds  of 
the  States,  and  a  majority  of  all  the  States  shall  be  necessary  to  a  choice.  And  if 
the  House  of  Representatives  shall  not  choose  a  President  whenever  the  right  of 
choice  shall  devolve  upon  them,  before  the  fourth  day  of  March  next  following, 
then  the  Vice-President  shall  act  as  President,  as  in  the  case  of  the  death  or  other 
constitutional  disability  of  the  President.  The  person  having  the  greatest  number 
of  votes  as  Vice-President,  shall  be  the  Vice-President,  if  such  number  be  a  majority 
of  the  whole  number  of  electors  appointed ;  and  if  no  person  have  a  majority,  then 
from  the  two  highest  numbers  on  the  list,  the  Senate  shall  choose  the  Vice-Presi- 
dent ;  a  quorum  for  the  purpose  shall  consist  of  two  thirds  of  the  whole  number  of 
senators,  and  a  majority  of  the  whole  number  shall  be  necessary  to  a  choice.  But 
no  person  constitutionally  ineligible  to  the  office  of  President  shall  be  eligible  to  that 
of  Vice-President  of  the  United  States. 

ARTICLE  XIII.8 — Section  i.  Neither  slavery  nor  involuntary  servitude,  ex- 
cept as  a  punishment  for  crime,  whereof  the  person  shall  have  been  duly  convicted, 
shall  exist  within  the  United  States,  or  any  place  subject  to  their  jurisdiction. 

1  Declared  in  force  January  8.  1708.  2  Declared  in  force  September  25,  1804. 

3  Declared  in  force  December  18,  1865. 


376  *  APPENDIX  B 

Section  2.  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  this  article  by  appropriate 
legislation. 

ARTICLE  XIV.1 — Section  i.  All  persons  born  or  naturalized  in  the  United 
States,  and  subject  to  the  jurisdiction  thereof,  are  citizens  of  the  United  States 
and  of  the  State  wherein  they  reside.  No  State  shall  make  or  enforce  any  law 
which  shall  abridge  the  privileges  or  immunities  of  citizens  of  the  United  States  ; 
nor  shall  any  State  deprive  any  person  of  life,  liberty,  or  property,  without  due 
process  of  law,  nor  deny  to  any  person  within  its  jurisdiction  the  equal  protection 
of  the  laws. 

Section  2.  Representatives  shall  be  appointed  among  the  several  States  accord- 
ing to  their  respective  numbers,  counting  the  whole  number  of  persons  in  each 
State  excluding  Indians  not  taxed.  But  when  the  right  to  vote  at  any  election  for 
the  choice  of  electors  for  President  and  Vice-President  of  the  United  States,  repre- 
sentatives in  Congress,  the  executive  or  judicial  officers  of  a  State,  or  the  members 
of  the  Legislature  thereof,  is  denied  to  any  of  the  male  inhabitants  of  such  State, 
being  twenty-one  years  of  age  and  citizens  of  the  United  States,  or  in  any  way 
abridged  except  for  participation  in  rebellion  or  other  crime,  the  basis  of  represen- 
tation therein  shall  be  reduced  in  the  proportion  which  the  number  of  such  male 
citizens  shall  bear  to  the  whole  number  of  male  citizens  twenty-one  years  of  age  in 
such  State. 

Section  3.  No  person  shall  be  a  senator  or  representative  in  Congress,  or 
elector  of  President  or  Vice-President,  or  hold  any  office,  civil  or  military,  under 
the  United  States,  or  under  any  State,  who  having  previously  taken  an  oath  as  a 
member  of  Congress,  or  as  an  officer  of  the  United  States,  or  as  a  member  of  any 
State  Legislature,  or  as  an  executive  or  judicial  officer  of  any  State,  to  support  the 
Constitution  of  the  United  States,  shall  have  engaged  in  insurrection  or  rebellion 
against  the  same,  or  given  aid  or  comfort  to  the  enemies  thereof.  But  Congress 
may,  by  a  vote  of  two  thirds  of  each  house,  remove  such  disability. 

Section  4.  The  validity  of  the  public  debt  of  the  United  States,  authorized  by 
law,  including  debts  incurred  for  payment  of  pension  and  bounties  for  services  in 
suppressing  insurrection  or  rebellion,  shall  not  be  questioned.  But  neither  the 
United  States  nor  any  State  shall  assume  or  pay  any  debt  or  obligation  incurred  in 
aid  of  insurrection  or  rebellion  against  the  United  States,  or  any  claim  for  the 
loss  or  emancipation  of  any  slave ;  but  all  such  debts,  obligations,  and  claims  shall 
be  held  illegal  and  void. 

Section  5.  The  Corgress  shall  have  power  to  enforce,  by  appropriate  legisla- 
tion, the  provisions  of  this  article. 

ARTICLE  XV.2— Section  i.  The  rights  of  citizens  of  the  United  States  to 
vote  shall  not  be  denied  or  abridged  by  the  United  States,  or  by  any  State,  on 
account  of  race,  color,  or  previous  condition  of  servitude. 

Section  2.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  this  article  by  appropriate 
legislation. 

1  Declared  in  f  ^rce  July  28,  1898.  s  Declared  in  force  March  30,  1870. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  377 

ARTICLE  XVI. — The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  lay  and  collect  taxes  on 
incomes  from  whatever  source  derived,  without  apportionment  among  the  several 
States,  and  without  regard  to  any  census  or  enumeration. 

ARTICLE  XVII?—  Section  i.  The  Senate  of  the  United  States  shall  be  com- 
posed of  two  Senators  from  each  State,  elected  by  the  people  thereof,  for  six  years; 
and  each  Senator  shall  have  one  vote.  The  electors  in  each  State  shall  have  the 
qualifications  requisite  for  electors  of  the  most  numerous  branch  of  the  State 
legislature. 

Section  2.  When  vacancies  happen  in  the  representation  of  any  State  in  the 
Senate,  the  executive  authority  of  such  State  shall  issue  writs  of  election  to  fill  such 
vacancies:  Provided  that  the  legislature  of  any  State  may  empower  the  executive 
thereof  to  make  temporary  appointments  until  the  people  fill  the  vacancies  by 
election  as  the  legislature  may  direct. 

Section  3.  This  amendment  shall  not  be  so  construed  as  to  affect  the  election 
or  term  of  any  Senator  chosen  before  it  becomes  valid  as  part  of  the  Constitution 

1  Declared  in  force  February  25, 1913.  » Declared  in  force  May  31, 1913. 


INDEX 


Accidents,  prevention  of,  82-88 ;  at  home, 
82-83 ;  on  the  street,  83-85 ;  on  the 
railroad,  85-86;  on  water,  86;  in 
industry,  86 ;  individual  responsibility, 
87-88;  insurance,  248. 

Adulteration  of  food,  49. 

Aeroplane,  detection  of  forest  fires,  102 ; 
trans-Atlantic  flight,  187;  transporta- 
tion by,  203,  221. 

Aged,  care  of,  272-273. 

Air,  need  for  pure,  25  ;   pollution,  30. 

Alaska,  education  in,  131. 

Alderman,  298. 

Alien,  medical  examination  of,  68 ;  voting, 
341;   naturalization  of,  230-231. 

Amendments  to  Constitution,  340-341. 

American  citizenship,  12;  Federation  of 
Labor,  238;  ideals  and  citizenship, 
354-358. 

Animal  life,  conservation  of,  255. 

Anniversaries,  161. 

Anti-federalist  party,  332. 

Apartments,  selection  of,  29. 

Appeal  to  higher  court,  282-283. 

Appropriation,  328. 

Arbitration,  compulsory,  239-240. 

Arid  land,  reclamation  of,  253. 

Armistice,  declaration  of,  187. 

Army,  American,  8,  65,  n  2-1 13,  131. 

Arrest,  281. 

Art,  177. 

Art  galleries,  135-136. 

Art  jury,  177. 

Artesian  wells,  41. 

Ashes,  removal'and  disposal,  60-62. 

Ashokan  reservoir,  41. 

Assembly,  302. 

Assessment,  320-321. 

Associated  press,  199-200. 

Asylums  for  the  insane,  271. 

Athenian  oath,  354. 

Attorney,  prosecuting,  282. 

Automatic  sprinklers,  90. 

Automobiles,  transportation,  210. 


Baby  saving  shows,  50. 

Bakeries,  condition  of,  52. 

Ballots,  345 ;    short  ballot,  348-349. 

Ballot  box,  345. 

Bands,  city,  158. 

Banks,  saving,  244 ;  national,  244. 

Bank  examiners,  116. 

Banking,  243-245. 

Beautiful  surroundings,  20. 

Benzoate  of  soda,  53. 

Blind,  schools  for  the,  133. 

Block  signal  systems,  195. 

Blue  sky  laws,  116. 

Board  of  Education,  71,  129. 

Boards  of  trade,  234-235. 

Bond  issues,  323. 

Books,  134. 

Borrowing  money,  322-323,  327-328. 

Botanical  gardens,  153. 

Boulevards,  175. 

Boy  scouts,  162. 

Boycott,  239. 

Bridge,  a  part  of  highway,  207. 

Brown -tail  moth,  115. 

Budget  making,  328. 

Building  and  loan  associations,  245. 

Building  inspectors,  31,  83. 

Building  laws,  83,  181. 

Bureau  of  Animal  industry,  53,  114; 
chemistry,  53;  entomology,  115; 
education,  130;  health,  54,  77;  immi- 
gration, 231 ;  naturalization,  231 ;  rec- 
lamation, 253. 

Business  associations,  236-237. 

Business  and  residential  sections  of  cities, 
182. 

Cabinet,  President's,  131. 
Cables,  ocean,  196. 
Camp  Fire  Girls,  162. 
Campaign,  election,  339. 
Capital,  wealth,  224-225. 
Capital  punishment,  277. 
Capitol  of  U.  S.,  181. 


379 


38o 


INDEX 


Carelessness,  55,  81. 

Caucus,  343. 

Cellars,  breeding  places  for  disease,  44. 

Censorship,  moving  pictures,  160;  news- 
paper in  wartime,  201. 

Census,  9. 

Chamber  of  commerce,  236. 

Charitable  organizations,  266-269;  in- 
stitutions, 270-273. 

Charities,  262-273. 

Charter,  city,  260,  275,  299. 

Checks  and  drafts,  245. 

Chemical  preservatives,  food,  50;  fire 
extinguisher,  94. 

Chicago,  189. 

Chicamauga  Park,  154. 

Chief  Justice,  Supreme  Court,  287. 

Child  labor,  71,  72. 

Children,  diseases  of,  64;  care  of,  272; 
aid  society,  272. 

Circuit  court  of  appeals,  286-287. 

Circulars  and  reports,  201. 

Citizenship,  definition,  12;  duties,  13; 
preparing  for,  230,  231. 

City,  growth  of,  15,  166;  planning,  178- 
183  ;  expenses  of  government,  319-323: 

Civic  beauty,  165-186. 

Civic  organizations,  32. 

Civic  virtues,  9. 

Civil  service,  35°-353- 

Cleaning  of  streets,  206. 

Cleanliness,  54-63. 

Clearing  house,  245. 

Clubs,  32,  162-163. 

Collective  bargaining,  238-239. 

Colleges  and  Universities,  132. 

Commercial  museums,  136. 

Commission  form  of  city  government,  301. 

Commissioner  of  education,  130. 

Committees,  in  City  Councils,  301. 

Common  interests,  16. 

Communication,  20,  187-202,  227. 

Community,  denned,  11 ;  founding  of,  15 ; 
working  together,  31 ;  playground, 
147-149. 

Compensation,  workingmen's,  248. 

Congress,  303. 

Congressional  district,  303. 

Conservation  of  natural  resources,  249- 
256. 

Constitution,  12-13;  the  fundamental 
law,  275 ;   national,  306. 


Contagion,  prevention  of,  63-69. 

Conviction,  282. 

Corporation,  259. 

Correction  and  the  Courts,  274-292. 

Correspondents,  newspaper,  137. 

Councilmen,  298. 

Councils,  299-301. 

County  commissioners,  324;  committee, 
335- 

Courts  and  the  law,  280-283 ;  organiza- 
tion of,  283-287. 

Crime,  causes  of,  277-278. 

Criminal  case,  281-282;  institutions, 
289-291. 

Dangerous  trades,  72. 

Deaf,  schools  for  the,  133. 

Death  rate,  25,  34. 

Declaration  of  Independence,  8,  355. 

Democracy,  9,  122. 

Democratic  party,  332. 

Dentist,  school,  70. 

Department  of  agriculture,  53 ;    health, 

66;      interior,    130,    154,    253;      post 

office,  190. 
Departments  of  government,  31 1-3 16. 
Dependents,  classes  of,  263-265. 
Deposit,  banking,  243. 
Detectives,  108-109. 
Diet,  an  enemy  to  health,  55 ;     sources 

of,  56-57- 
Disease  in  tenements,  28;     germs,  55; 

among  cattle,  114-115. 
District  attorney,  U.  S.,  286. 
District  courts,  federal,  286. 
Division  of  labor,  223,  233. 
Division  of  powers,  305-306. 
Docket,  283. 

Domestic  relations  court,  284. 
Draft,  22. 

Education,  18,  119-142;  increasing 
earning  power,  120-121;  enjoyment, 
1 21-122;  and  citizenship,  122-123; 
compulsory,  123-124;    in  Alaska,  131. 

Educational  recreation,  156-161. 

Election  machinery,  340-349. 

Electoral  college,  347. 

Electrical  communication,  194-198. 

Elements  of  welfare,  21. 

Emigrant,  227-228. 

Eminent  domain,  322. 


INDEX 


381 


Employment,  15. 

Enemies  of  health,  55. 

Enforcing  the  laws,  310-316 ;  through  the 

courts,  280. 
Enrollment  party,  342. 
Epidemics,  63. 
Evidence,  282. 
Excess  condemnation,  322. 
Excises,  326. 
Executive,  76. 

Executive  departments,  31 1-3 16. 
Executive  and  lawmaking,  305. 
Exits,  theaters,  etc.,  99. 
Expenses,   meeting   government's,    317- 

329- 
Explosives,  storage  of,  83. 

Fair  play,  118. 

Farm  life,  230. 

Federal  courts,  285-287. 

Federal  inspection  for  health,  52-53. 

Federal  tariff  commission,  259. 

Federalist  party,  332. 

Feeble  minded,  care  of,  271-272,  290. 

Feeblemindedness,  a  cause  of  crime, 
277. 

Filter,  city,  39. 

Filtration,  37-41. 

Fingerprints,  109,  281. 

Fire,  accidents  from,  82-83 ;  alarms,  97, 
98;  boats,  96;  cost,  89;  department, 
91 ;  escapes,  83  ;  fighting,  89 ;  forest, 
100-102  ;  insurance,  247-248 ;  marshal, 
99,  100;  prevention,  98-100;  protec- 
tion against,  88-89;  schools,  93-94; 
station,  94-95. 

Firemen,  91-93. 

Fish  and  game  laws,  255. 

Flag,  the  American,  1,  4. 

Flies,  44,  49,  55. 

Floods,  114. 

Foch,  General,  8. 

Folk  dances,  160. 

Food,  dangers  of  impure,  50 ;  licenses  for 
dealers  in,  51 ;  impure,  49;  pure,  48; 
conservation  of,  251. 

Foreigners,  education  of,  128. 

Forest,  fires,  100;  rangers,  101 ;  reserva- 
tions, 114. 

Forms,  of  business,  259. 

Fourth  of  July,  161. 

Franchises,  212-213. 


Franklin,  Benjamin,  8. 

Fraud,  115. 

Fundamental  law,  275. 

Furnishings  and  decorations  of  homes,  167. 

Garbage  nuisances,  30;  disposal,  58-60; 
pollution  of  water,  35 ;  receptacle,  58, 
59- 

Gas,  accidents  from,  82 ;  a  source  of  in- 
come, 321. 

Gasoline,  accident,  83. 

General  election,  344-348. 

General  property  tax,  320. 

Gettysburg,  154. 

Gipsy  moth,  115. 

Glacier  Park,  185. 

Government,  75-77. 

Government  ownership,  telephones,  tele- 
graphs, 196;    railways,  217-218,  220. 

Grand  jury,  281. 

Health,  17 ;  community  effort,  37  ;  de- 
fects among  volunteers  and  drafted 
men,  22;  effect  of  army  life  on,  23; 
education,  69 ;  effect  of  city  life  on,  24, 
26;  individual  responsibility,  53-54, 
78-79;  protection  of,  22-79;  protec- 
tion by  individual  action,  36-37 ; 
state  and  federal  action,  52;  workers 
handling  food,  52. 

Height  of  building,  regulation  of,  181. 

Hessian  fly,  115. 

High  pressure  systems,  fire,  95. 

Highways,  state  and  national,  207. 

Homes,  167. 

Homestead,  253. 

Hospitals,  270. 

House  of  representatives,  state,  302. 

House  of  representatives,  303. 

Housing  conditions,  27. 

Human  life,  conservation  of,  255. 

Illiteracy  in  army,  131. 
Illness,  impure  air,  27. 
Immigrants,  undesirable,  229. 
Immigration,  228-229. 
Incineration  of  garbage,  59-60. 
Income  tax,  319,  326. 
Indeterminate  sentence,  288-289. 
Indians,  14. 
Indictment,  281. 
Industry,  accidents  in,  86. 


382 


INi^EX 


Infant  mortality,  so. 

Infantile  paralysis,  67. 

Influenza  epidemic,  63. 

Inheritance  tax,  324. 

Initiative,  307. 

Inoculation,  typhoid,  65. 

Insane,  care  of,  270-271,  2go. 

Insanity,  a  cause  of  crime,  277. 

Insects,  115. 

Inspectors,  building,  31-99;  factory,  73; 
labor,  72  ;  milk,  meat,  slaughter  house, 
51;  postal,  194;  steamship,  86. 

Insurance,  247-248. 

Insurance  patrol,  96. 

Interdependence,  15. 

Interest,  243. 

Internal  revenue  taxes,  326-327. 

Interstate  Commerce  Commission,  218- 
219. 

Interstate  commerce,  child  labor,  72. 

Interurban  electric  lines,  214-215. 

Irrigation,  253. 

Johnstown  flood,  114. 
Joint  worm,  115. 
Judge,  282. 
Judicial,  76. 
Jury,  282. 
Juvenile  courts,  284. 

Kindergartens,  126. 
Knights  of  Columbus,  163. 

Labor,  224. 

Labor  unions,  237-240. 

Lard,  224;    conservation  of,  253. 

Law,  desire  of  group,  30;  enforcing,  76; 
how  made,  293-309 ;  interpreting,  76 ; 
kinds  of,  280;  making,  76;  necessity 
for,  274;  private  organizations  secur- 
ing passage  of,  32. 

Lawmaking,  in  the  city,  298-302 ;  in 
the  state,  302 ;  in  the  nation,  303. 

Lawns  and  gardens,  168. 

Lawsuit,  283. 

Lawyers,  310. 

Lectures  and  debates,  201. 

L'Enfant,  Major,  179,  180. 

Legislative,  76. 

Levees,  114. 

Liberty,  122. 

Liberty  bonds,  241,  327. 


Libraries,  134-135. 
Licenses  for  food  dealers,  51. 
Life,  protection  of,  17,  81-118. 
Life  insurance,  247-248. 
Lighthouses,  86. 
Lightships,  86. 
Lincoln,  127,  134. 
Linkmen,  85. 

Los  Angeles,  water  supply,  41. 
Loyal  citizenship,  354-358. 

Magistrates  court,  281. 

Mail,  189-194. 

Marshal,  U.  S.,  286. 

Mass  Meeting,  297. 

Matches,  accidents  from,  82,  89. 

Mayor,  approval  of  bills,  300. 

Measures,  false,  115. 

Meats,  chemically  treated,  50;  com- 
munity regulation  of,  51. 

Medical  inspection  of  schools,  64 ;  exami- 
nation of  children  in  industry,  72. 

Melting  pot,  the,  3. 

Message  of  President,  305. 

Meter,  prepayment,  danger  of,  82. 

Metropolitan  Museum,  New  York,  136. 

Migration,  225-232. 

Milk,  50,  51. 

Mineral  resources,  conservation  of,  253. 

Misdemeanants  court,  284. 

Money,  223. 

Money  orders,  193. 

Monuments,  175. 

Mortgage,  246. 

Mosquitoes,  44;    disease  carriers,  55. 

Moth,  gipsy,  brown-tail,  and  tussock,  115. 

Motion  pictures,  1 50-1 60. 

Municipal  court,  283-284. 

Municipal  ownership,  street  railways, 
214. 

Museums  and  art  galleries,  135-136. 

Music  and  entertainment,  158. 

Nation,  education  in,  130-13 1. 
National  anthem,  4. 
National  army  cantonments,  48. 
National  banks,  244. 
National  civil  service,  352. 
National  committee,  336. 
National  Consumers'  League,  74. 
National  government,  expenses  of,  325- 
329. 


INDEX 


383 


National  guard,  112. 

National  nominating  convention,  336-338. 

National  parks,  154. 

Natural  beauty,  184,  185. 

Natural  resources,  224. 

Naturalization,  12,  128,  230-231. 

Navy,  113. 

New  York  water  supply  system,  42. 

Newspapers,  137,  198-201. 

Niagara  Falls,  184. 

Night  letters,  195. 

Nominations,  342-343. 

Nomination  petition,  343. 

Northclifle,  Lord,  188. 

Nuisances,  30,  59. 

Nurse,  school,  70. 

Obedience,  4,  9. 

Ocean,  cables,  196. 

Offenders  against  the  law,  275-276. 

Old  age  pensions,  273. 

Opera,  public,  159. 

Order,  preservation  of,  103. 

Ordinances,  75,  311. 

Ordinance  and  zoning  commissions,  182. 

Organization  of  government,  31 1-3 16. 

Orphans,  homes  for,  272. 

Oxygen  helmet,  93. 

Pageants,  160. 

Paint  and  repairs,  168. 

Panama  Canal,  219-220. 

Parcel  post,  193-194. 

Parks,  151-154;  city,  152;  civic  beauty, 
174-176- 

Parkways,  175. 

Parole,  289. 

Partnership,  259. 

Party  government,  330-349. 

Party  organization,  335~339- 

Passport,  13. 

Paving  and  street  cleaning,  58,  171. 

Penn,  William,  178. 

Pennsylvania  Avenue,  Washington,  D.C., 
181. 

Pension,  old  age,  273. 

Pensions,  289-291. 

Periodicals,  139. 

Pershing,  General,  8. 

Petition,  307. 

Philadelphia,  planning  of,  178;  play- 
grounds, 147 ;  water  supply  system,  42, 


Phosphorus  poisoning,  73. 

Physical  examination  in  army  and  navy, 

22-25. 
Physical  recreation,  145-156. 
Platform,  party,  338. 
Play,  18;   streets,  150. 
Playgrounds,  145-149. 
Plumbing  and  health,  47. 
Policeman,    106-107;      mounted  police, 

107-108;    river  and  harbor,  108;    en* 

forcing  the  law,  312. 
Police  signals,  109;    schools,  no;    state, 

110-112. 
Politeness,  13. 

Political  clubs,  338-339;  parties,  33Q-339- 
Poorhouse,  271,  273. 
Population,  5,  9. 
Post  Office,  city,  191. 
Postal  savings,  193. 
Postal  service,  189-194. 
Postman,  189-190. 
Postmaster- General,  190. 
Poverty,  causes  of,  262-263. 
Precinct,  345. 
Precinct  committee,  335. 
Presidency,  343. 

President,  election  of,  344,  347-348. 
Primary  election,  343-344- 
Principal,  school,  129. 
Private  organizations,  health,  32. 
Probation  officer,  285. 
Professional  associations,  237. 
Prohibition,  78,  307. 
Property,  protection  of,  17,  18,  80-118. 
Prosecution,  282. 
Prosperity,  234. 
Protection  of  health,   22-79;      hfe  and 

property,  80-118. 
Ptomaine  poisoning,  50. 
Public  lands,  sale  of,  253. 
Public  opinion,  newspapers,  200. 
Pulmotor,  instruction  in  use  of,  93. 
Punishments,  276-277. 
Pure  food  and  drug  act,  53. 

Quarantine,  65-69;   federal,  67-69. 

Railroads,  electrification  of,  31. 

Railways,  accidents  on,  85-86 ;  electric, 
209-215;  elevated,  210;  city  street, 
surface,  209-210;  subway,  210;  steam, 
215-219. 


3^4 


INDEX 


Railway  mail  service,  191-193. 

Real  estate  assessors,  321. 

Recall,  308,  348. 

Recreation,  18,  143-164. 

Recreation  centers,  149-150;    piers,  151. 

Reduction  of  garbage,  60. 

Referendum,  307. 

Registration  bureau,  268-269. 

Registration  for  military  service,  23. 

Registration,  personal,  341. 

Relief,  methods  of,  269. 

Repeating,  341. 

Representative,  298. 

Representative  government,  75. 

Representatives,  lawmaking  by,  297- 
298. 

Republican  party,  332. 

Resuscitation,  methods  of,  93. 

Riots,  in. 

River  and  harbor  police,  108 ;  Committee, 
220. 

Roads,  good,  208 ;  toll,  208. 

Roosevelt,  Theodore,  conservation  move- 
ment, 250. 

Rubbish,  nuisances,  30;  civic  beauty, 
171;  fire  menace,  82;  water  pollu- 
tion, 35. 

Sacrificing  for  the  common  good,  7,  8. 

Safe  and  sane  Fourth,  161. 

Safety  devices  in  industry,  72-73. 

Safety  first,  81. 

Salvation  Army,  163. 

Sanitary  inspectors,  31. 

Sanitation  in  the  army,  48. 

Savings  banks,  244. 

Scholarships,  133. 

School,  what  it  is  for,  119;  blind  and 
deaf,  133;  continuation,  124,  125; 
elementary,  125,  126;  hours  and  con- 
ditions, 70-71;  Junior  High,  126; 
medical  inspection  of,  64;  night,  128; 
normal,  130;  playgrounds,  146-147; 
Senior  High,  127, 128;  superintendent, 
129;    the  public  schools,  123-131. 

Schools,  18. 

Sedimentation  tanks,  45. 

Selecting  a  home,  29. 

Selective  service,  22. 

Semaphore,  85. 

Senate,  State,  302 ;    United  States,  303. 

Sentence,  282 ;  indeterminate,  288. 


Sewage,  35 ;  disposal  of,  37,  44-47 ;  dis- 
posal plants,  45 ;  sedimentation  tanks, 
45- 

Shelter,  18. 

Sick,  care  of,  270. 

Signs,  overhead,  danger  from,  84. 

Sinking  fund,  323. 

Slot  meter,  danger  of  accident,  82. 

Smallpox,  63. 

Smoke,  nuisance,  30;  consuming  de- 
vices, 31 ;   mask,  93. 

Snow  removal,  206. 

Social  settlements,  268;  worker,  266, 
267. 

Societies,  139. 

Spending  and  saving,  241-248. 

Spoils  system,  350. 

Squares  and  gardens,  1 51-152. 

Stage  coaches,  204. 

State  committee,  336. 

State  courts,  285. 

State,  education,  129-130;  parks,  154. 

State,  expenses  of  government,  323- 
324- 

Steam  railways,  215-219. 

Street,  accidents  on,  83-85. 

Street  cleaning,  57,  58,  171 ;  paving,  171; 
plans,  178. 

Streets,  civic  beauty,  170-173  ;  diagonal, 
179;  and  transportation,  204-208; 
cleaning,  206 ;  paving  and  repairing  of, 
205-206 ;   lighting  and  safety,  85,  207. 

Strikes,  239-240. 

Suffrage,  340-341. 

Superior  court,  state,  285. 

Supreme  court,  state,  285 ;   U.  S.,  287. 

Surface  water  and  sewage,  46. 

Swamping  the  ticket,  342. 

Swimming  pools,  150-151. 

Swindles,  115. 

Tally  sheets,  347. 
Tariff,  257-259,  325. 
Taxation,  123,  318. 
Taxes,  kinds  of,  319. 
Teacher  training,  128. 
Telegraph,  137,  195. 
Telephone,  137,  195. 
Tenements,  28. 
Thrift,  241-248. 
Thrift  stamps,  193,  241. 
Town  meeting,  296. 


INDEX 


385 


Traffic  circuit,  183;  officer,  84;  squad, 
107,  108 ;  regulations,  84. 

Transportation,  20,  203-221 ;  develop- 
ment of  city,  2 1 1-2 1 2,  227. 

Treaty  of  peace,  187. 

Trial,  criminal  case,  282 ;  civil  case,  282. 

Trusts,  260. 

Trust  companies,  244. 

Tuberculosis,  28. 

Tussock  moth,  115. 

Typhoid  fever,  34,  50,  65. 

Undesirable  immigrants,  229. 
Unemployment,  263. 
Unions,  labor,  237-240. 
Universities  and  colleges,  132. 
Unsightly  objects,  173. 

Vaccination,     typhoid,     36;      smallpox, 

64-65. 
Valley  Forge  Park,  154. 
Vandalism,  186. 
Ventilation,  26-27. 
Verdict  of  court,  288. 
Veto,  by  Mayor,  301 ;  by  Governor,  302  ; 

by  President,  303. 
Vice-presidency,  243. 
Vigilance  committees,  274. 
Voter,    qualifications    and    registration, 

340-342. 
Voting,  12-13. 
Voting  machines,  345. 


Wages,    222-223, 
120. 


242;    and   education, 


War,  declaration  of,  22. 

Ward  committee,  335. 

Warrants,  281. 

War  savings  stamps,  193,  241. 

Washington,   a  well-planned  city,   179- 

181. 
Waste  and  ashes  disposal,  60-62. 
Watchmen,  00. 
Water,      33-43;      conservation,       251- 

252. 
Water  front,  civic  beauty,  175. 
Water  towers,  fire,  95. 
Water  users'  association,    253. 
Wealth,  222-261. 
Weights,  false,  115. 
White  House,  181. 
White  plague,  28. 
Wilson,  President,  188,  305. 
Window  boxes,  168. 
Wire,  overhead,  danger  from,  84. 
Wireless  telegraph,  86,  196-197. 
Woman  suffrage,  341. 
Working    hours    and    conditions,     70- 

74- 
Workingmen's  compensation,  248 . 

Yellow  fever,  63,  69. 
Yellowstone  Park,  154,  185. 
Y.  M.  C.  A.,  163. 
Y.  M.  H.  A.,  163. 
Y.  W.  C.  A.,  163. 

Zoning  commissions,  182 
Zoning  commission,  183. 
Zoological  gardens,  153. 


TI 


S  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW 


AN  INITIAL  FINE  OF  25  CENTS 

WILL  BE  ASSESSED  FOR  FAILURE  TO  RETURN 
THIS  BOOK  ON  THE  DATE  DUE.  THE  PENALTY 
WILL  INCREASE  TO  SO  CENTS  ON  THE  FOURTH 
DAY  AND  TO  $I.OO  ON  THE  SEVENTH  DAY 
OVERDUE. 


OCT   2b  1934 


FEB  14  1935 


MAR  9     1939 


JAN   21  1945 


T^ 


4346- 


5Wr;-r;fF 


lIBRAKYti96 


W?*m 


RFC'D  LP 


APR  S  6  1960 


2lten,faisCa 


OT^  1  ■ — 


LD  21-100m-7,'33 


YB  08773 


S20G 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


